Stages of World War I 1914 1918 Events of the First World War

How the First World War took place (1914 - 1918): reasons, stages, results briefly. The years of the war, its beginning and end, the entire chronicle of events and who won and won. Let's look at the file of losses, how many died and what losses each country suffered. The table of calculations will help you understand the details and see the full picture. You will also find out who were the most famous heroes in Russia and their exploits.

The First World War began on August 1, 1914, and ended on November 11, 1918. During this period, 38 states took part in hostilities, which means that 62% of the world's population were at war at the same time.

The First World War is one of those wars that historians call ambiguous and extremely controversial. One of the reasons for the war was the overthrow of the autocracy in Russia, which the opponents managed to achieve. The Balkan countries played the most significant role in the course of events, but their decisions and actions were directly influenced by England. So, it was impossible to call these countries independent. Germany also had some influence (in particular on Bulgaria), but it quickly lost its authority in the region.

Who's with whom?

Two groups of countries took part in the First World War. On one side there was the Entente, on the other - the Triple Alliance. Each group had its own leaders and allies.

The Entente included: the Russian Empire, Great Britain and France. On the side of these countries were the USA, Italy, as well as Romania, New Zealand, Canada and Australia.

The Triple Alliance included: Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. During the hostilities, the Bulgarian kingdom also joined them, which is why the coalition was later called the Quadruple Alliance.

Country	Entering the war	Exit from the war
🌏 Austria-Hungary	July 27, 1914	November 3, 1918
🌏 Germany	August 1, 1914	November 11, 1918
🌏 Türkiye	October 29, 1914	October 30, 1918
🌏 Bulgaria	October 14, 1915	September 29, 1918
🌏 Russia	August 1, 1914	March 3, 1918
🌏 France	August 3, 1914
🌏 Belgium	August 3, 1914
🌏 UK	4 August 1914
🌏 Italy	May 23, 1915
🌏 Romania	August 27, 1916

At the very beginning, Italy was part of the Triple Alliance, but as soon as the start of the First world war, this country has declared its neutrality.

Reasons

The main reason for the outbreak of the war was the claims of the leading (at that time) world powers to redistribute the world. England, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary planned to expand their spheres of influence in one way or another.

Already by the beginning of the 20th century, the colonial system, which fed the leading powers so well, suddenly failed. European countries had been stealing valuable resources from Africans and Indians for decades by exploiting their colonies. But the world has changed, now resources could not be obtained so easily - the powers decided to take them from each other by force.

Against this background, contradictions grew stronger and stronger:

• England and Germany: the first power did everything possible to prevent the second from strengthening its position in the Balkans. At the same time, Germany not only sought to gain a foothold in the Balkans and the Middle East, but also made efforts to deprive England of its naval supremacy on the world stage.
• Germany and France: the French dreamed of returning Alsace and Lorraine - lands lost during the war of 1870 - 1871. France was also interested in the Saar coal basin, which at that time belonged to Germany.
• Germany and Russia: The Germans were hunting for Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states, which at that time belonged to the Russian Empire.
• Russia and Austria-Hungary: For these two powers, the main contradictions centered on the desire to influence the Balkans. And Russia also wanted to take the Bosporus and Dardanelles for itself.

Reason for starting the war

The impetus that triggered the First World War occurred in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina): nineteen-year-old Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist from the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Franz Ferdinand, the Archduke and heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne.

“Young Bosnia”, within which Gavrilo Princip acted, being a member of the Black Hand organization, fought for the liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the rule of Austria-Hungary. The murder of the heir to the throne was that very step on the path to liberation, but the resonance received on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo was greater than the participants in those events probably expected.

German helmets from the First World War

Austria-Hungary received a reason to attack Serbia, but at the same time it could not start a war on its own. She needed the help of England, which, in turn, acted aggressively, trying to manipulate Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany. On the one hand, the British insisted that Nicholas II and the Russian Empire help Serbia in case of aggression. On the other hand, the English press exposed the Serbs as real barbarians who could not be left unpunished, thereby pushing Austria-Hungary to take active action.

Thus, the resulting conflict turned into the raging flames of a world war. And England played no small role in this as the leading power of that time.

In textbooks we stick to only the most common facts - the casus belli is the assassination of the Archduke on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo. But you need to understand that behind the scenes fertile ground was being prepared for the ignition of a full-fledged world conflict:

• Influential French politician Jean Jaurès was assassinated on June 29, the day after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. Jean Jaurès opposed the war.
• A few weeks before these two murders mentioned above, an attempt was made on the life of Rasputin, an ardent opponent of the war, who had serious influence on Nicholas II, Emperor of the Russian Empire.
• Russian Ambassador Hartley died in the Austrian embassy in Serbia in 1914. By the way, in 1917, his correspondence with Sozonov, the next Russian ambassador to Serbia, mysteriously disappeared.

British diplomats acted “on two fronts”: they egged on Germany, promising to take Germany’s side in the war with the Russian Empire or, as a last resort, to maintain neutrality; and at the same time, Nicholas II received confirmation that England’s assistance was being prepared for him in a potential war against Germany.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the powers of Russia and Germany were approximately equal in their global influence. Even after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, these two powers took a wait-and-see attitude, not daring to open military action. If England had made it clear to both Russia and Germany that it would not allow war in Europe, none of these countries would have decided to go to war. Austria-Hungary would also not go to war with Serbia, despite the murder. But England did everything so that each country prepared to fight, promising each side its help behind the backs of the others.

When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, it was not yet the First World War. To grow from a small war between two states over murder into a world war, all the major powers of the time had to be drawn into the conflict. Each of them was on at different levels readiness for war.

Nicholas II understood perfectly well that the Russian Empire was not ready for military action, but it could not remain on the sidelines, given that its authority in the Balkans, which had been so hard won earlier, was at stake. As a result, the emperor signs a decree on mobilization. And despite the fact that all-Russian mobilization is not yet a declaration of war, Germany and Austria-Hungary took the Russian mobilization as a signal for active action. These two powers even demanded that Russia stop mobilization, but there was no answer. On August 1, the German ambassador Count Pourtales arrived in Russian Ministry Foreign Affairs with a note declaring war.

Military power of powers

Map of military operations in 1914 – 1915 (clickable)

Let's look at the balance of forces and military weapons of key countries in the First World War:

Country	Number of common weapons	Of these heavy guns
🌏 Russian Empire	7088	240
🌏 Austria-Hungary	4088	1000
🌏 Germany	9388	3260
🌏 France	4300	198

Germany and Austria-Hungary turned out to have significantly more heavy guns, but at the same time Germany developed its military industry even more actively. For comparison, England produced up to 10 thousand shells per month, and Germany produced more than 250 thousand per day alone.

Now let's compare the weapons and equipment availability of the leading powers of the First World War:

Side in the war	Country	Small arms	Artillery	Tanks
Entente	Russia	3328	11,7
Entente	France	2812	23,2	5,3
Entente	England	4093	26,4	2,8
Triple Alliance	Germany	8827	64	0,1
Triple Alliance	Austria-Hungary	3540	15,9

It is obvious that the military power of the Russian Empire was greatly inferior not only to Germany, but also to France and England. This could not but affect the course of military operations and losses as a result of the war.

It remains to analyze the number of fighting infantry at the beginning and end of the war, as well as the losses of each side:

Side in the war	Country	Beginning of the war	End of the war	Losses
Entente	Russia	5.3 million	7.0 million	2.3 million
Entente	France	3.7 million	4.4 million	1.4 million
Entente	England	1 million	3.9 million	0.7 million
Triple Alliance	Germany	3.8 million	7.6 million	2 million
Triple Alliance	Austria-Hungary	2.3 million	4.4 million	1.4 million

What conclusion can we draw from this summary? England suffered the least human losses, which was not a surprise, because this country almost did not take part in major battles.

As a result of the war, it turned out that those countries that invested the most in this war lost the most. While Russia and Germany were losing 4.3 million people between them, France, Austria-Hungary and England together lost 3.5 million. In fact, the war was fought between Russia and Germany and it was these two powers that were left with nothing: Russia lost lands and signed the shameful Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, and Germany lost its independence as a result of the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

Chronicle of events

July 28, 1914. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. The countries of the Triple Alliance and the Entente were drawn into the conflict.

August 1, 1914. The Russian Empire entered the war. Nikolai Romanov, the uncle of Nicholas II, was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief.

As soon as the First World War began, St. Petersburg was immediately renamed Petrograd: the capital of the Russian Empire could not have a name with German origin.

Military operations in 1914

What happened on the fronts:

• Northwestern Front. Military operations took place from August to September 1914. Russian troops carried out the East Prussian operation, which ended in the complete defeat of the first and second Russian armies.
• Southwestern Front. Military operations during the Galician operation also lasted from August to September 1914 against the Austro-Hungarian troops. The latter received reinforcements from Germany, which saved them.
• Caucasian Front. From December 1914 to January 1915, the Sarykamysh operation against Turkish troops took place, as a result of which most of Transcaucasia was occupied.

Military operations on the Eastern Front in 1914

The Russian Empire opposes Germany and Austria-Hungary. Türkiye also joined the latter.

📌 Military operations on the Eastern Front were not successful for either side - no one achieved a tangible victory.

Germany developed a plan to defeat France, then Russia, with lightning speed, but this plan failed miserably. It was called the Schlieffen plan and its essence was to destroy France from the Western Front in 40 days, and then fight Russia on the Eastern Front. The Germans focused on 40 days because they believed that this was the time the Russian Empire needed to mobilize.

The advance of German troops started successfully - on August 2, 1914 they captured Luxembourg, and on August 4 the Germans had already invaded Belgium, which at that time was a neutral country. On August 20, Germany moved towards France, but on September 5 it was stopped at the Marne River. A battle took place there with a total of 2 million people fighting.

Germany thought that it could cope with France while Russia mobilized its troops, but Nicholas II entered the war without a full mobilization of the army. Russian troops attacked East Prussia on August 4, which the Germans did not expect and even retreated at first. But in the end, Germany repulsed the attack, since the Russian Empire did not have full resources or proper organization. Russia lost the battle, but also prevented Germany from implementing Schlieffen’s lightning plan: while the Russian Empire was losing the first and second armies, France saved Paris.

Military operations on the Southwestern Front in 1914

In parallel with the offensive in the East, the Russian Empire went to Galicia, where the Austro-Hungarian troops were located. Despite assistance from Germany, which sent additional divisions to the allied Austria-Hungary, this operation was more successful for the Russian army: Austria-Hungary lost 400 thousand soldiers, another 100 thousand were captured. At the same time, Russia lost 150 thousand.

📌 After the Galician operation, Austria-Hungary left the war, no longer able to fight on its own.

Results of 1914:

1. The German Schlieffen plan to capture the French and Russian armies at lightning speed failed miserably.
2. None of the powers gained a significant advantage during the war.
3. As a result of 1914, the First World War became a positional war.

Military operations in 1915

When it became clear that the Schlieffen Plan had failed, Germany sent all its forces to the Eastern Front to fight Russia. At that moment, it seemed to Germany that the Russian Empire was the weakest country of the Entente and was much easier to deal with than the others.

The strategic plan for command on the Eastern Front was developed by General von Hindenburg. The Russian Empire thwarted this plan as well, but spent enormous effort on it and only got out at the cost of incredible losses.

What happened on the fronts:

• Northwestern Front. Military operations took place from January to October 1915. As a result of the German offensive, Russia loses Poland, Western Belarus, Ukraine and part of the Baltic states. The Russians take a defensive position.
• Southwestern Front. Military operations lasted from January to March 1915. During the Carpathian operation against the Austro-Hungarian troops, the Russian army loses Galicia and goes on the defensive.
• Caucasian Front. From June to July 1915, the Alashkert operation lasted near lakes Van and Urmia against the Turkish army. In December 1915, the Erzurum operation began.

Military operations on the Northwestern Front in 1915

From the beginning of 1915 until October, Germany actively attacked Russia, as a result of which the latter lost Poland, Western Ukraine, partially the Baltic states and Western Belarus. During this German offensive, the Russian Empire lost 850 thousand people and 900 thousand soldiers were captured.

Despite the fact that the Russian Empire did not capitulate after these military actions, but went on the defensive, the countries of the Triple Alliance were convinced that Russia would not recover from its losses.

📌 After a successful attack for Germany and the defeat of the Russian army, Bulgaria joined this side - from October 14, 1915.

Military operations on the Southwestern Front in 1915

The German army with the remnants of the surviving Austro-Hungarian army in the spring of 1915 makes the Gorlitsky breakthrough. Russia retreats along the Southwestern Front and loses Galicia, which it only conquered in 1914. On the German side there was not only a significant technical advantage, but also strategic mistakes of the Russian command.

📌 At that time, Germany had 2.5 times more machine guns, 4.5 times more light artillery, and the number of heavy artillery was 40 times greater.

Military operations on the Western Front in 1915

On the Western Front, war broke out between Germany and France. Actions on both sides were sluggish and lack of initiative. Germany focused more on the Eastern Front, while England and France at that time were mobilizing armies in preparation for further actions.

Nicholas II repeatedly turned to France for help, at least to make it more active on the Western Front, but in vain.

Results of 1915:

1. The German plan to destroy the Russian army failed, but the losses of the Russian Empire were colossal, although not huge enough to take Russia out of the war.
2. After 1.5 years of hostilities, neither side has gained a strategic advantage or superiority. The war dragged on.

Military operations in 1916

The 16th year of the 20th century began with Germany losing the strategic initiative. The successful Russian offensive once again plays into the hands of allied France - the Verdun fortress is saved. At this stage, Romania joins the Entente.

Let's take a brief look at what happened in the third year of the war:

• Northwestern Front. From spring to autumn, defensive battles are fought on the western border.
• Southwestern Front. From May to July 1916, the Russian army advances and makes the Brusilov breakthrough. During these actions, Russia recaptures Bukovina and Southern Galicia, destroying the Austro-Hungarian troops.
• Caucasian Front. The Erzurum operation comes to an end and the Trebizond operation begins, as a result of which Erzurum and Trebizond are captured.

Military operations on the Southwestern Front in 1916

In February 1916, German troops decisively advance into France to capture Paris. Defended the capital Verdun - a fortress on the outskirts of Paris. It was to Verdun that Germany went. 2 million people died in that battle, and it lasted until the very end of 1916.

📌 Considering how much time was spent capturing the Verdun fortress, and how many people died, those battles were called the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. France managed to survive, but only because Russia came to its aid.

Russian troops had been actively advancing along the Southwestern Front since May 1916. This offensive went down in history as the Brusilov breakthrough, since General Brusilov was in command. The offensive lasted for 2 months.

The actual breakthrough occurred on June 5 in Bukovina. The Russian army not only broke through the defenses, but also advanced 120 km inland. The losses of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies in that breakthrough amounted to 1.5 million people - wounded and prisoners in total. The Russian offensive was stopped only after the transfer of additional German divisions, which at that time were located near Verdun and in Italy.

Having entered the war on the side of the Entente, Romania was unable to resist the German army. Germany quickly dealt with the Romanian troops, inflicting a serious defeat on them. As a result, Russia has 2 thousand km of additional front, which means additional losses.

Results of 1916:

1. The strategic initiative was on the side of the Entente.
2. France re-defended Paris from attack, retaining the fortress of Verdun. But, like the first time, this happened thanks to the help of the Russian Empire.
3. In the third year of the war, Romania joined the Entente, but Germany quickly destroyed its army.
4. A significant achievement of the Russian Empire this year was the Brusilov breakthrough.

Military operations in 1917

The year 1917 was fatal for the Russian Empire. On all fronts, Russian troops carry out unsuccessful operations: Germany captures Riga, and then the Moonsund archipelago in the Baltic. The Russian army is demoralized, and popular unrest is directed towards peace. Changes are ripe within the country - on November 20 (December 3) the Bolsheviks seize power and negotiate for peace. As a result of these negotiations, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was signed on March 3, 1918.

Armored Train in the Carpathians (New York Public Library Archives)

In both Germany and Russia, the economic situation worsened due to the war in 1917. For example, in the Russian Empire, during the first 3 years of the war, food prices increased 4–5 times. A dissatisfied people, a grueling war, great human losses - all this served as fertile ground for the revolutionaries, who rushed to take advantage of the moment to seize power. A similar picture emerged in Germany.

As for the balance of power in the First World War, the position of the Triple Alliance was seriously weakened: Germany could no longer fight on two fronts, and then the United States entered the war.

The end of the First World War for the Russian Empire

In the spring of 1917, Germany tried to carry out an offensive on the Western Front, but the Provisional Government in Russia, trying to fulfill the agreements signed by the Russian Empire, sent its troops to Lvov on the offensive.

Once again, the allies are saved, but the Russian army is suffering crushing losses step by step - the provisions are meager, the uniforms and provisions for the soldiers leave much to be desired, but even in such circumstances, the Russian troops are trying to move forward. Meanwhile, Russia's allies are not actively participating or providing the necessary assistance.

On July 6, when Germany launched a counteroffensive, 150 thousand Russian soldiers died. The front collapsed, and the Russian army ceased to exist. Russia had nothing and no one else to fight with.

In such conditions, the Bolsheviks, having seized power in the country in October 1917, signed the decree “On Peace”, thereby leaving the war, and already in 1918, on March 3, the Brest-Litovsk Treaty was signed, according to which Russia:

• makes peace with Austria-Hungary, Germany and Turkey;
• renounces claims to Poland, Ukraine, the Baltic states, Finland and part of Belarus;
• inferior to Batum, Ardahan and Kars to Turkey.

Having entered the First World War, the Russian Empire:

• ceased to exist as a power, giving power to the Bolsheviks;
• lost 1 million sq. m of territory;
• lost a quarter of the population;
• seriously weakened in the agricultural sector and in the coal/metallurgical industry.

Military operations in 1918

With the Eastern Front gone, Germany could no longer be split into two directions. In the spring, she headed to the Western Front, but achieved no success there. It became obvious that she needed a break.

Decisive events occurred in the fall of 1918, when the United States and the Entente countries attacked the German army, displacing it from the territories of France and Belgium. Already in October, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey concluded a truce with the Entente powers and now Germany found itself in complete isolation. The Triple Alliance capitulated and, like the events in Russia, fertile ground for revolution was formed in Germany, which occurred on November 9, 1918 - Emperor Wilhelm II was overthrown.

War heroes and their exploits

A.A. Brusilov (1853-1926). He commanded the Southwestern Front and carried out a successful operation, which was later called the Brusilov breakthrough. The army of military leader Brusilov forced the enemy to think from which side the main blow was being delivered. The tactic of simultaneous attacks in several directions worked in four cases at once. In 3 days, more than 100 thousand people were captured. Over the entire summer, the Russian army took territory from the Germans and Austro-Hungarians all the way to the Carpathians.

M.V. Alekseev (1857 – 1918). Infantry general and chief of staff of the Russian army on the Southwestern Front. He led the largest operations, leading the Russian army.

Kozma Kryuchkov- the first person to receive the St. George Cross in the First World War. He served in the Don Cossack Regiment and, with other comrades, once met a patrol of German cavalrymen. Of the 22 enemies, he personally killed ten, among whom was an officer. He himself received 16 wounds. His name is not so well known, because in 1919 Kryuchkov gave his life in battles with the Bolsheviks, serving in the ranks of the White Army.

The St. George Cross was also received by Vasily Chapaev, Georgy Zhukov, Konstantin Rokossovsky, Rodion Malinovsky.

A.I. Denikin (1872 – 1947). Military leader and general of the First World War. He was the commander of the “iron brigade”, which distinguished itself in battles more than once.

P.N. Nesterov (1887 – 1914). Russian pilot who invented the aerial loop named after him. He died in 1914, in battle, after ramming an enemy airplane.

End of the First World War

The First World War ended on November 11, 1918, when Germany signed its surrender. In the Compiègne forest at the Retord station, near Paris, the French Marshal Foch accepted the surrender of the defeated power. As a result, Germany:

• admitted defeat in the war;
• pledged to return Alsace and Lorraine, as well as the Saar coal basin to France;
• abandoned all her colonies;
• transferred an eighth of its territories to its neighbors.

In addition, the signed surrender required that:

• Entente troops were stationed on the left bank of the Rhine for 15 years;
• until May 1921, Germany had to pay the Entente powers (except Russia) 20 billion marks;
• for 30 years, Germany was obliged to pay reparations, the amount of which the victorious countries could change during these 30 years;
• Germany did not have the right to form an army of more than 100 thousand people, while the army itself must be voluntary for citizens.

All these conditions were so humiliating for Germany that they actually deprived it of its independence, making it an obedient puppet in the hands of other powers.

Results of the First World War

World War I involved 14 major countries and a total of 38 powers in total. This meant that during the 4 years of the war, 1 billion people or 62% of the planet's population were involved. During the entire war, 74 million people were mobilized, of whom 10 million were killed and 20 million were injured.

The political map of Europe has been redrawn:

• New states appeared, such as: Lithuania, Poland, Latvia, Finland, Estonia, Albania.
• Austria-Hungary ceased to exist, splitting into 3 independent states: Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia.
• The borders of France, Italy, Greece and Romania expanded.

The losing countries that lost land were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Bulgaria and Türkiye. During the war, 4 empires ceased to exist: Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman.

So, it was the First World War 1914 - 1918: causes, stages, results briefly and in pictures. We looked at the years - the beginning and end of the battles (including separately for Russia), who won and how many people died (a card index of countries' losses in the table), and also found out who the war heroes were and their exploits. Do you have any questions? Ask them in the comments.

Sources

• Ardashev A.N. The Great Trench War. Positional massacre of the First World War
• Pereslegin S.B. First World War. War between Realities
• Basil Liddell Hart. History of the First World War
• Evgeniy Belash. Myths of the First World War
• Anatoly Utkin. First World War
• Badak A.N. World History. Volume 19

Relation to the Brest-Litovsk Treaty

“Left Communists” (Bukharin) - against peace, for revolutionary war

L. Trotsky: “No peace, no war!”

V.I. Lenin: “Peace at any cost!”

Other political forces: against peace with Germany.

Consequences of the Brest-Litovsk Peace:

The Bolsheviks received a respite and retained power

Loss of grain-producing areas led to famine

Carrying out a policy of “war communism” - requisitioning grain from peasants, which led to discontent

Open Entente intervention

Russia was not invited to the Versailles Conference and did not receive any compensation

Consequences of the war for Russia

Political:

Defeat in the war

End of the Empire

October Revolution of 1917, Soviet power

Economic:

Militarization of the economy

Reduction of enterprises and production

Loss of a significant part of economically important territories

Social:

Significant decline in the standard of living of the population

Population decline. Declining birth rate

Famine, epidemics, diseases

From the history of the First World War:

The war lasted from July 28, 1914 - November 11, 1918(officially the state of the world was approved on June 28, 1919)

38 states took part in the war (4 on the side of the German bloc: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria), the rest on the side of the Entente.

About 74 million people were mobilized, over 10 million were killed, over 20 million were wounded.

August 21-25, 1914 - battle of Charleroi, defeat of the British and French troops.

September 5-12, 1914 - defeat of Germany in the Battle of Marne, the German offensive in France was stopped.

February-December 1916- Verdun operation(“Verdun meat grinder”, more than 2 million soldiers died)

July-November 1916 - battles on the river Somme.

In the war for the first time were used tanks, aircraft. chemical weapons.

All countries were seriously affected by the war. Only Great Britain remained the winner - new colonies were added, and the country began to own almost a quarter of the land.

November 11, 1918 - signing of an armistice between the victors (the Entente countries) and Germany in Compiègne forest(France)

Parisian peace conference (January 18, 1919 - January 21, 1920) 27 countries participated. The conference prepared the main treaties following the war. Russia - did not participate (it was considered a country that lost the war, Soviet power was considered temporary)

Versailles peace treaty signed June 28, 1919, entered into force on January 10, 1920. The treaty officially ended the First World War and secured a new redistribution of the world. Russia did not participate (for the same reasons as at the Paris Conference)

IN THE First World War FOR THE FIRST TIME:

Applied chemical weapons– Germans, near the Ypres River (hence the mustard gas) in 1915

Tanks- the British were the first to use them in the Battle of the Somme on September 15, 1915 against Turkey

Submarines- England, Germany

Aviation- by the beginning of the war, aviation was part of the armies of developed countries as auxiliary forces. (The first combat use of aircraft dates back to the Balkan Wars in 1912-1913)

Some terms

Schlieffen plan - plan for a lightning war in Germany (2-3 months) - defeat of France, without which Great Britain would not have been able to wage the war. Then a peace conference would be held and the colonies would be divided in a new way.

Trench warfare - a war in which the struggle is waged on continuous, relatively stable fronts (positions), with much attention paid to defense.

"Progressive block "- created in 1915, it is a coalition of progressive deputies in State Duma, demand for reform.

Organizations created during the war in Russia:

May 1915- Central Military-Industrial Committee to organize production for defense needs and distribute military orders (led by an Octobrist Guchkov)

July 10, 1915 - joint committee of the All-Russian Zemstvo and City Unions - Zemgor- supplying the army, helping it (led by Lviv, close to the cadets)

Versailles system- world order approved by the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919: strengthening the positions of the victorious countries in the war (France and Great Britain)

6 The rise of Kievan Rus. Yaroslav the Wise. "Russian truth". Vladimir Monomakh and his role in Russian history

7 Feudal fragmentation. Features of the development of Russian principalities

8 Mongol-Tatar yoke: history of establishment and its consequences

9. The struggle of the northwestern lands against knightly orders. A. Nevsky.

11. Creation of a unified Russian state. Feudal war of the 15th century. Ivan III and the overthrow of the Horde yoke. Vasily III.

12.Ivan IV the Terrible. Estate-representative monarchy in Russia.

13. Time of Troubles in Russia. Reasons, essence, results.

14. Russia under the first Romanovs. Enslavement of the peasants. Church schism.

15. Peter I: man and politician. Northern War. Formation of the Russian Empire.

16. Reforms of Peter I - a revolution “from above” in Russia.

17. Palace coups in Russia in the 18th century. Elizaveta Petrovna.

186 Days of Peter III

18. Catherine II. "Enlightened absolutism" in Russia. Stacked commission.

19.)Catherine II. Major reforms. “Certificates of Complaint...”

Charter granted to the nobility and cities in 1785

20.) Socio-political thought in Russia in the 18th century. Science and education in Russia in the 18th century.

22.) Decembrists: organizations and programs. The Decembrist uprising and its significance

1.) State Device:

2.) Serfdom:

3.) Rights of citizens:

23.) Nicholas I. The theory of “official nationality”.

The theory of official nationality

24.) Westerners and Slavophiles. The origins of Russian liberalism.

25.) Three currents of Russian populism. "Land and Freedom".

1.Conservatives

2.Revolutionaries

3. Liberals

26.) Abolition of serfdom in Russia. Alexander II.

27.) Reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century and their results. “Dictatorship of the Heart” by Loris-Melikov

28.) Alexander III and counter-reforms

29. Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Features of socio-economic development. Attempts at modernization: Witte S.Yu., Stolypin P.A.

30. The first bourgeois-democratic revolution and the policy of autocracy. Nicholas II. "Manifesto of October 17."

32.The second industrial revolution: stages, consequences, results.

33. First World War (1914-1918): causes, results.

35. A national crisis is brewing. The Great Russian Revolution. Overthrow of the autocracy.

36. Development of the revolution in conditions of dual power. February-July 1917.

37. Socialist stage of the Great Russian Revolution (July-October 1917)

38.The first decrees of Soviet power. Decree on peace. Russia's exit from the imperialist war.

II Congress of Soviets

39.Civil war and the policy of “war communism”.

40. NEP: reasons, progress, results.

42. The basic principles of Soviet foreign policy and the struggle of the USSR for their implementation. International relations in the interwar period.

43.The USSR’s struggle for peace on the eve of the war. Soviet-German non-aggression pact.

44.World War II: causes, periodization, results. The Great Patriotic War of the Soviet people.

45. A radical turning point in the Second World War. The Battle of Stalingrad and its significance.

46. ​​Contribution of the USSR to the defeat of fascism and militarism. Results of the Second World War.

47. Development of the USSR in the post-war period. Stages, successes and problems.

48. Foreign policy of the USSR in the post-war period. From the Cold War to Détente (1945–1985).

49. Perestroika: reasons, goals and results. New political thinking.

50. Russia in the 90s: a change in the model of social development.

33. First World War (1914-1918): causes, results.

The reason for the outbreak of hostilities in 1914 was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist and member of the Young Bosnia organization. However, from the very beginning of the First World War, historians have been concerned with a more significant question: what were the reasons for its outbreak?

There are likely to be many reasons for the outbreak of the First World War. But most historians are inclined to consider the main one to be the competing interests of the largest European powers. What were these interests from the point of view of historians?

Great Britain (as part of the Entente)

Fearing a potential German threat, she abandoned the country’s traditional policy of “isolation” and switched to a policy of forming an anti-German bloc of states.

She did not want to put up with German penetration into areas that she considered “hers”: East and South-West Africa. She also wanted to take revenge on Germany for supporting the Boers during the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902. In connection with this, it was already waging an undeclared economic and trade war against Germany and was actively preparing in case of aggressive actions on the part of Germany.

France (part of the Entente)

She wanted to recoup the defeat inflicted on her by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870.

She wanted to return Alsace and Lorraine, separated from France in 1871.

She could not accept her losses in traditional sales markets due to competition with German goods.

She was afraid of new German aggression. She sought to preserve her colonies, in particular North Africa.

Russia (as part of the Entente)

She demanded a revision in her favor of the control regime over the Dardanelles Strait, because she wanted to have free passage for her fleet in the Mediterranean Sea.

She assessed the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway (1898) as an unfriendly act on the part of Germany. Russia saw this construction as an encroachment on its rights in Asia. Although, as historians note, in 1911 these differences with Germany were resolved by the Potsdam Agreement.

She did not want to put up with Austrian penetration into the Balkans and the fact that Germany was gaining strength and began to dictate its terms in Europe.

She wanted to dominate all Slavic peoples, so she supported anti-Austrian and anti-Turkish sentiments among the Serbs and Bulgarians in the Balkans.

Serbia (as part of the Entente)

Having gained full independence only in 1878, she sought to establish herself in the Balkans as the leader of the Slavic peoples of the peninsula.

She wanted to form Yugoslavia, including all the Slavs living in the south of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Unofficially supported nationalist organizations that fought against Austria-Hungary and Turkey.

German Empire (Triple Alliance)

As an economically developed country, it sought military, economic and political dominance on the European continent.

Since Germany needed markets, and it only entered the struggle for colonies after 1871, it longed to gain equal rights in the colonial possessions of England, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal.

In the Entente she saw an alliance against itself in order to undermine its power.

Austria-Hungary (Triple Alliance)

Due to its multinationality, it played the role of a constant source of instability in Europe.

She tried to hold on to Bosnia and Herzegovina, which she captured in 1908.

It opposed Russia because Russia took on the role of protector of all Slavs in the Balkans, and Serbia.

USA (supported the Entente)

Here historians do not express themselves specifically, citing only the fact that before the First World War the United States was the world's largest debtor, and after the war it became the world's sole creditor.

♦ Exacerbation of contradictions between industrial powers over sales markets, sources of raw materials, spheres of influence

After the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, events developed as follows:

07/15/28/1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.

19.07 (01.08) Germany declared war on Russia.

21.07 (03.08) Germany declared war on France.

22.07 (04.08) Great Britain declared war on Germany.

As a result of the war, four empires ceased to exist: Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and German.

Six months later, Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919), drawn up by the victorious states at the Paris Peace Conference, officially ending the First World War.

Peace treaties with

Germany (Treaty of Versailles)

Austria (Treaty of Saint Germain)

Bulgaria (Treaty of Neuilly)

Hungary (Treaty of Trianon)

Turkey (Treaty of Sèvres).

The results of the First World War were the February and October revolutions in Russia and the November Revolution in Germany, the liquidation of four empires: the Russian, German, Ottoman empires and Austria-Hungary, and the latter two were divided.

Germany, having ceased to be a monarchy, was reduced territorially and weakened economically. The difficult conditions of the Treaty of Versailles for Germany (payment of reparations, etc.) and the national humiliation it suffered gave rise to revanchist sentiments, which became one of the prerequisites for the Nazis coming to power and unleashing World War II.

The First World War accelerated the development of new weapons and means of warfare. For the first time, tanks, chemical weapons, a gas mask, anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns, and a flamethrower were used. Airplanes, machine guns, mortars, submarines, and torpedo boats became widespread. The firepower of the troops increased sharply. New types of artillery appeared: anti-aircraft, anti-tank, infantry escort. Aviation became an independent branch of the military, which began to be divided into reconnaissance, fighter and bomber. Tank troops, chemical troops, air defense troops, and naval aviation emerged. The role of engineering troops increased and the role of cavalry decreased. “Trench tactics” of warfare also appeared with the aim of exhausting the enemy and depleting his economy, working on military orders.

The enormous scale and protracted nature of the First World War led to an unprecedented militarization of the economy for industrial states. This had an impact on the course of economic development of all major industrial states in the period between the two world wars: strengthening state regulation and economic planning, the formation of military-industrial complexes, accelerating the development of national economic infrastructures (energy systems, a network of paved roads, etc.) , an increase in the share of production of defense products and dual-use products.

34 .Political parties of Russia in the conditions of the First World War.

Classes and parties. The bourgeoisie, bourgeois landowners, and a significant part of the wealthy intelligentsia (about 4 million people) relied on economic power, education, and experience in participating in political life and managing government institutions. They sought to prevent the further development of the revolution, stabilize the socio-political situation and strengthen their property.

The working class (18 million people) consisted of urban and rural proletarians. They managed to feel their political strength, were predisposed to revolutionary agitation and were ready to defend their rights with weapons. They fought for the introduction of an 8-hour working day, a guarantee of employment, and increased wages. Factory committees (factory committees) spontaneously arose in cities to establish workers' control over production and resolve controversial issues with entrepreneurs.

The peasantry (130 million people) demanded the destruction of large private land properties and the transfer of land to those who cultivate it. Local land committees and village assemblies were created in the villages, which made decisions on the redistribution of land. Relations between peasants and landowners were extremely tense.

The army (15 million people) became a special political force. The soldiers advocated ending the war and broad democratization of all military institutions. They actively supported the basic demands of the workers and peasants and were the main armed force of the revolution.

The extreme right (monarchists, Black Hundreds) suffered a complete collapse after the February Revolution. The Octobrists, who unconditionally supported industrialists on the labor issue and advocated the preservation of landownership, did not have a historical perspective. All of them were focused on suppressing the revolution and served as support for counter-revolutionary conspiracies.

Cadets from opposition party became the ruling party, initially occupying key positions in the Provisional Government. They stood for turning Russia into a parliamentary republic. On the agrarian issue, they still advocated the purchase of landowners' lands by the state and peasants. The cadets put forward the slogan of maintaining loyalty to the allies and waging the war “to the victorious end.”

The Social Revolutionaries, the most massive party after the revolution, proposed turning Russia into a federal republic of free nations, eliminating landownership and distributing land among the peasants “according to an equalizing norm.” They sought to end the war by concluding a democratic peace without annexations and indemnities, but at the same time considered it necessary to defend the revolution from German militarism. In the summer of 1917, a left wing emerged in the Socialist Revolutionary Party, which protested against cooperation with the Provisional Government and insisted on an immediate solution to the agrarian question. In the fall, the Left Social Revolutionaries formed an independent political organization.

The Mensheviks, the second largest and most influential party, advocated the creation of a democratic republic, the right of nations to self-determination, the confiscation of landowners' lands and their transfer to the disposal of local governments. In foreign policy, they, like the Socialist Revolutionaries, took the position of “revolutionary defencism.”

The Cadets, Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks delayed the implementation of their program provisions until the end of the war and the convening of the Constituent Assembly. The Social Revolutionaries and Mensheviks, operating in a single political bloc, enjoyed great authority in the Soviets, trade unions, agrarian committees and other public organizations.

The Bolsheviks took extreme left positions. In March, the party leadership was ready to cooperate with other socialist forces and provide conditional support to the Provisional Government. It adopted the idea of ​​“revolutionary defencism.”

However, after V.I. Lenin returned from emigration, his program (“April Theses”) was adopted. It provided for a transition from a bourgeois-democratic revolution to a socialist one. The political core of the program was the idea of ​​establishing a republic of Soviets of workers and poor peasants and, in connection with this, the refusal to support the Provisional Government. In the economic sphere, it was proposed to confiscate the landowners and nationalize all land; transition to Soviet control over the production and distribution of products; nationalization of the banking system. The Bolsheviks advocated Russia's immediate withdrawal from the imperialist war. Their program excluded cooperation with “moderate” socialists and, in principle, was aimed at seizing political power.

"

First World War (1914 - 1918)

The Russian Empire collapsed. One of the goals of the war has been achieved.

Chamberlain

The First World War lasted from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918. 38 states with a population of 62% of the world took part in it. This war was quite controversial and described extremely contradictorily in modern history. I specifically cited Chamberlain’s words in the epigraph in order to once again emphasize this inconsistency. A prominent politician in England (Russia's war ally) says that by overthrowing the autocracy in Russia one of the goals of the war has been achieved!

The Balkan countries played a major role in the beginning of the war. They were not independent. Their policies (both foreign and domestic) were greatly influenced by England. Germany had by that time lost its influence in this region, although it controlled Bulgaria for a long time.

• Entente. Russian Empire, France, Great Britain. The allies were the USA, Italy, Romania, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
• Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire. Later they were joined by the Bulgarian kingdom, and the coalition became known as the “Quadruple Alliance”.

The following major countries took part in the war: Austria-Hungary (27 July 1914 - 3 November 1918), Germany (1 August 1914 - 11 November 1918), Turkey (29 October 1914 - 30 October 1918), Bulgaria (14 October 1915 - 29 September 1918). Entente countries and allies: Russia (August 1, 1914 - March 3, 1918), France (August 3, 1914), Belgium (August 3, 1914), Great Britain (August 4, 1914), Italy (May 23, 1915), Romania (August 27, 1916) .

One more important point. Initially, Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance. But after the outbreak of World War I, the Italians declared neutrality.

Causes of the First World War

The main reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the desire of the leading powers, primarily England, France and Austria-Hungary, to redistribute the world. The fact is that the colonial system collapsed by the beginning of the 20th century. The leading European countries, which had prospered for years through the exploitation of their colonies, could no longer simply obtain resources by taking them away from Indians, Africans and South Americans. Now resources could only be won from each other. Therefore, contradictions grew:

• Between England and Germany. England sought to prevent Germany from increasing its influence in the Balkans. Germany sought to strengthen itself in the Balkans and the Middle East, and also sought to deprive England of maritime dominance.
• Between Germany and France. France dreamed of regaining the lands of Alsace and Lorraine, which it had lost in the war of 1870-71. France also sought to seize the German Saar coal basin.
• Between Germany and Russia. Germany sought to take Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states from Russia.
• Between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Controversies arose due to the desire of both countries to influence the Balkans, as well as Russia's desire to subjugate the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

The reason for the start of the war

The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the events in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina). On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand of the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, so the resonance of the murder was enormous. This was the pretext for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia.

The behavior of England is very important here, since Austria-Hungary could not start a war on its own, because this practically guaranteed war throughout Europe. The British at the embassy level convinced Nicholas 2 that Russia should not leave Serbia without help in the event of aggression. But then the entire (I emphasize this) English press wrote that the Serbs were barbarians and Austria-Hungary should not leave the murder of the Archduke unpunished. That is, England did everything to ensure that Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia did not shy away from war.

Important nuances of the casus belli

In all textbooks we are told that the main and only reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. At the same time, they forget to say that the next day, June 29, another significant murder took place. The French politician Jean Jaurès, who actively opposed the war and had great influence in France, was killed. A few weeks before the assassination of the Archduke, there was an attempt on the life of Rasputin, who, like Zhores, was an opponent of the war and had great influence on Nicholas 2. I would also like to note some facts from the fate of the main characters of those days:

• Gavrilo Principin. Died in prison in 1918 from tuberculosis.
• The Russian Ambassador to Serbia is Hartley. In 1914 he died at the Austrian embassy in Serbia, where he came for a reception.
• Colonel Apis, leader of the Black Hand. Shot in 1917.
• In 1917, Hartley’s correspondence with Sozonov (the next Russian ambassador to Serbia) disappeared.

This all indicates that in the events of the day there were a lot of black spots that have not yet been revealed. And this is very important to understand.

England's role in starting the war

At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 2 great powers in continental Europe: Germany and Russia. They did not want to openly fight against each other, since their forces were approximately equal. Therefore, in the “July crisis” of 1914, both sides took a wait-and-see attitude. British diplomacy came to the fore. Using the press and secret diplomacy, she conveyed her position to Germany - in the event of war, England would remain neutral or take Germany's side. Through open diplomacy, Nicholas 2 received the opposite idea that if war broke out, England would take the side of Russia.

It must be clearly understood that one open statement from England that it would not allow war in Europe would be enough for neither Germany nor Russia to even think about anything like that. Naturally, under such conditions, Austria-Hungary would not have dared to attack Serbia. But England, with all its diplomacy, pushed European countries towards war.

Russia before the war

Before the First World War, Russia carried out army reform. In 1907, a reform of the fleet was carried out, and in 1910, a reform of the ground forces. The country increased military spending many times over, and the total peacetime army size was now 2 million. In 1912, Russia adopted a new Field Service Charter. Today it is rightly called the most perfect Charter of its time, since it motivated soldiers and commanders to show personal initiative. Important point! The doctrine of the army of the Russian Empire was offensive.

Despite the fact that there were many positive changes, there were also very serious miscalculations. The main one is the underestimation of the role of artillery in war. As the course of events of the First World War showed, this was a terrible mistake, which clearly showed that at the beginning of the 20th century, Russian generals were seriously behind the times. They lived in the past, when the role of cavalry was important. As a result, 75% of all losses in the First World War were caused by artillery! This is a verdict on the imperial generals.

It is important to note that Russia never completed preparations for war (at the proper level), while Germany completed it in 1914.

The balance of forces and means before and after the war

Artillery

	Number of guns	Of these, heavy guns
Austria-Hungary
Germany

According to the data from the table, it is clear that Germany and Austria-Hungary were many times superior to Russia and France in heavy weapons. Therefore, the balance of power was in favor of the first two countries. Moreover, the Germans, as usual, created an excellent military industry before the war, which produced 250,000 shells daily. By comparison, Britain produced 10,000 shells per month! As they say, feel the difference...

Another example showing the importance of artillery is the battles on the Dunajec Gorlice line (May 1915). In 4 hours, the German army fired 700,000 shells. For comparison, during the entire Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), Germany fired just over 800,000 shells. That is, in 4 hours a little less than during the entire war. The Germans clearly understood that heavy artillery would play a decisive role in the war.

Weapons and military equipment

Production of weapons and equipment during the First World War (thousands of units).

	Strelkovoe	Artillery
United Kingdom
TRIPLE ALLIANCE
Germany
Austria-Hungary

This table clearly shows the weakness Russian Empire in terms of equipping the army. In all main indicators, Russia is much inferior to Germany, but also inferior to France and Great Britain. Largely because of this, the war turned out to be so difficult for our country.

Number of people (infantry)

Number of fighting infantry (millions of people).

	At the beginning of the war	By the end of the war	Casualties
United Kingdom
TRIPLE ALLIANCE
Germany
Austria-Hungary

The table shows that Great Britain made the smallest contribution to the war, both in terms of combatants and deaths. This is logical, since the British did not really participate in major battles. Another example from this table is instructive. All textbooks tell us that Austria-Hungary, due to large losses, could not fight on its own, and it always needed help from Germany. But notice Austria-Hungary and France in the table. The numbers are identical! Just as Germany had to fight for Austria-Hungary, so Russia had to fight for France (it is no coincidence that the Russian army saved Paris from capitulation three times during the First World War).

The table also shows that in fact the war was between Russia and Germany. Both countries lost 4.3 million killed, while Britain, France and Austria-Hungary together lost 3.5 million. The numbers are eloquent. But it turned out that the countries that fought the most and made the most effort in the war ended up with nothing. First, Russia signed the shameful Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, losing many lands. Then Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, essentially losing its independence.

Progress of the war

Military events of 1914

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. This entailed the involvement of the countries of the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Entente, on the other hand, into the war.

Russia entered World War I on August 1, 1914. Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov (Uncle of Nicholas 2) was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief.

In the first days of the war, St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. Since the war with Germany began, the capital could not have a name of German origin - “burg”.

Historical background

German "Schlieffen Plan"

Germany found itself under the threat of war on two fronts: Eastern - with Russia, Western - with France. Then the German command developed the “Schlieffen Plan”, according to which Germany should defeat France in 40 days and then fight with Russia. Why 40 days? The Germans believed that this was exactly what Russia would need to mobilize. Therefore, when Russia mobilizes, France will already be out of the game.

On August 2, 1914, Germany captured Luxembourg, on August 4 they invaded Belgium (a neutral country at that time), and by August 20 Germany reached the borders of France. The implementation of the Schlieffen Plan began. Germany advanced deep into France, but on September 5 it was stopped at the Marne River, where a battle took place in which about 2 million people took part on both sides.

Northwestern Front of Russia in 1914

At the beginning of the war, Russia did something stupid that Germany could not calculate. Nicholas 2 decided to enter the war without fully mobilizing the army. On August 4, Russian troops, under the command of Rennenkampf, launched an offensive in East Prussia (modern Kaliningrad). Samsonov's army was equipped to help her. Initially, the troops acted successfully, and Germany was forced to retreat. As a result, part of the forces of the Western Front was transferred to the Eastern Front. The result - Germany repelled the Russian offensive in East Prussia (the troops acted disorganized and lacked resources), but as a result the Schlieffen plan failed, and France could not be captured. So, Russia saved Paris, albeit by defeating its 1st and 2nd armies. After this, trench warfare began.

Southwestern Front of Russia

On the southwestern front, in August-September, Russia launched an offensive operation against Galicia, which was occupied by troops of Austria-Hungary. The Galician operation was more successful than the offensive in East Prussia. In this battle, Austria-Hungary suffered a catastrophic defeat. 400 thousand people killed, 100 thousand captured. For comparison, the Russian army lost 150 thousand people killed. After this, Austria-Hungary actually left the war, since it lost the ability to conduct independent actions. Austria was saved from complete defeat only by the help of Germany, which was forced to transfer additional divisions to Galicia.

The main results of the military campaign of 1914

• Germany failed to implement the Schlieffen plan for lightning war.
• No one managed to gain a decisive advantage. The war turned into a positional one.

Map of military events of 1914-15

Military events of 1915

In 1915, Germany decided to shift the main blow to the eastern front, directing all its forces to the war with Russia, which was the weakest country of the Entente, according to the Germans. It was a strategic plan developed by the commander of the Eastern Front, General von Hindenburg. Russia managed to thwart this plan only at the cost of colossal losses, but at the same time, 1915 turned out to be simply terrible for the empire of Nicholas 2.

Situation on the northwestern front

From January to October, Germany waged an active offensive, as a result of which Russia lost Poland, western Ukraine, part of the Baltic states, and western Belarus. Russia went on the defensive. Russian losses were gigantic:

• Killed and wounded - 850 thousand people
• Captured - 900 thousand people

Russia did not capitulate, but the countries of the Triple Alliance were convinced that Russia would no longer be able to recover from the losses it had suffered.

Germany's successes on this sector of the front led to the fact that on October 14, 1915, Bulgaria entered the First World War (on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary).

Situation on the southwestern front

The Germans, together with Austria-Hungary, organized the Gorlitsky breakthrough in the spring of 1915, forcing the entire southwestern front of Russia to retreat. Galicia, which was captured in 1914, was completely lost. Germany was able to achieve this advantage thanks to the terrible mistakes of the Russian command, as well as a significant technical advantage. German superiority in technology reached:

• 2.5 times in machine guns.
• 4.5 times in light artillery.
• 40 times in heavy artillery.

It was not possible to withdraw Russia from the war, but the losses on this section of the front were gigantic: 150 thousand killed, 700 thousand wounded, 900 thousand prisoners and 4 million refugees.

Situation on the Western Front

"Everything is calm on the Western Front." This phrase can describe how the war between Germany and France proceeded in 1915. There were sluggish military operations in which no one sought the initiative. Germany implemented plans in Eastern Europe, and England and France calmly mobilized their economy and army, preparing for further war. No one provided any assistance to Russia, although Nicholas 2 repeatedly turned to France, first of all, so that it would take active action on the Western Front. As usual, no one heard him... By the way, this sluggish war on Germany’s western front was perfectly described by Hemingway in the novel “A Farewell to Arms.”

The main result of 1915 was that Germany was unable to bring Russia out of the war, although all efforts were devoted to this. It became obvious that the First World War would drag on for a long time, since during the 1.5 years of the war no one was able to gain an advantage or strategic initiative.

Military events of 1916

"Verdun Meat Grinder"

In February 1916, Germany launched a general offensive against France with the goal of capturing Paris. For this purpose, a campaign was carried out on Verdun, which covered the approaches to French capital. The battle lasted until the end of 1916. During this time, 2 million people died, for which the battle was called the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. France survived, but again thanks to the fact that Russia came to its rescue, which became more active on the southwestern front.

Events on the southwestern front in 1916

In May 1916, Russian troops went on the offensive, which lasted 2 months. This offensive went down in history under the name “Brusilovsky breakthrough”. This name is due to the fact that the Russian army was commanded by General Brusilov. The breakthrough of the defense in Bukovina (from Lutsk to Chernivtsi) happened on June 5. The Russian army managed not only to break through the defenses, but also to advance into its depths in some places up to 120 kilometers. The losses of the Germans and Austro-Hungarians were catastrophic. 1.5 million dead, wounded and prisoners. The offensive was stopped only by additional German divisions, which were hastily transferred here from Verdun (France) and from Italy.

This offensive of the Russian army was not without a fly in the ointment. As usual, the allies dropped her off. On August 27, 1916, Romania entered the First World War on the side of the Entente. Germany defeated her very quickly. As a result, Romania lost its army, and Russia received an additional 2 thousand kilometers of front.

Events on the Caucasian and Northwestern fronts

Positional battles continued on the Northwestern Front during the spring-autumn period. As for the Caucasian Front, the main events here lasted from the beginning of 1916 to April. During this time, 2 operations were carried out: Erzurmur and Trebizond. According to their results, Erzurum and Trebizond were conquered, respectively.

The result of 1916 in the First World War

• The strategic initiative passed to the side of the Entente.
• The French fortress of Verdun survived thanks to the offensive of the Russian army.
• Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente.
• Russia carried out a powerful offensive - the Brusilov breakthrough.

Military and political events 1917

The year 1917 in the First World War was marked by the fact that the war continued against the background of the revolutionary situation in Russia and Germany, as well as the deterioration of the economic situation of the countries. Let me give you the example of Russia. During the 3 years of the war, prices for basic products increased on average by 4-4.5 times. Naturally, this caused discontent among the people. Add to this heavy losses and a grueling war - we get excellent soil for revolutionaries. The situation is similar in Germany.

In 1917, the United States entered the First World War. The position of the Triple Alliance is deteriorating. Germany and its allies cannot effectively fight on 2 fronts, as a result of which it goes on the defensive.

The end of the war for Russia

In the spring of 1917, Germany launched another offensive on the Western Front. Despite the events in Russia, Western countries demanded that the Provisional Government implement the agreements signed by the Empire and send troops on the offensive. As a result, on June 16, the Russian army went on the offensive in the Lvov area. Again, we saved the allies from major battles, but we ourselves were completely exposed.

The Russian army, exhausted by the war and losses, did not want to fight. The issues of food, uniforms and supplies during the war years were never resolved. The army fought reluctantly, but moved forward. The Germans were forced to transfer troops here again, and Russia's Entente allies again isolated themselves, watching what would happen next. On July 6, Germany launched a counteroffensive. As a result, 150,000 Russian soldiers died. The army virtually ceased to exist. The front fell apart. Russia could no longer fight, and this catastrophe was inevitable.

People demanded Russia's withdrawal from the war. And this was one of their main demands from the Bolsheviks, who seized power in October 1917. Initially, at the 2nd Party Congress, the Bolsheviks signed the decree “On Peace,” essentially proclaiming Russia’s exit from the war, and on March 3, 1918, they signed the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty. The conditions of this world were as follows:

• Russia makes peace with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
• Russia is losing Poland, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and the Baltic states.
• Russia cedes Batum, Kars and Ardagan to Turkey.

As a result of its participation in the First World War, Russia lost: about 1 million square meters of territory, approximately 1/4 of the population, 1/4 of arable land and 3/4 of the coal and metallurgical industries were lost.

Historical background

Events in the war in 1918

Germany got rid of the Eastern Front and the need to wage war on two fronts. As a result, in the spring and summer of 1918, she attempted an offensive on the Western Front, but this offensive had no success. Moreover, as it progressed, it became obvious that Germany was getting the most out of itself, and that it needed a break in the war.

Autumn 1918

The decisive events in the First World War took place in the fall. The Entente countries, together with the United States, went on the offensive. The German army was completely driven out of France and Belgium. In October, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria concluded a truce with the Entente, and Germany was left to fight alone. Her situation was hopeless after the German allies in the Triple Alliance essentially capitulated. This resulted in the same thing that happened in Russia - a revolution. On November 9, 1918, Emperor Wilhelm II was overthrown.

End of the First World War

On November 11, 1918, the First World War of 1914-1918 ended. Germany signed a complete surrender. It happened near Paris, in the Compiègne forest, at the Retonde station. The surrender was accepted by the French Marshal Foch. The terms of the signed peace were as follows:

• Germany admits complete defeat in the war.
• The return of the province of Alsace and Lorraine to France to the borders of 1870, as well as the transfer of the Saar coal basin.
• Germany lost all its colonial possessions, and was also obliged to transfer 1/8 of its territory to its geographical neighbors.
• For 15 years, Entente troops were on the left bank of the Rhine.
• By May 1, 1921, Germany had to pay members of the Entente (Russia was not entitled to anything) 20 billion marks in gold, goods, securities etc.
• Germany must pay reparations for 30 years, and the amount of these reparations is determined by the winners themselves and can be increased at any time during these 30 years.
• Germany was prohibited from having an army of more than 100 thousand people, and the army had to be exclusively voluntary.

The terms of the “peace” were so humiliating for Germany that the country actually became a puppet. Therefore, many people of that time said that although the First World War ended, it did not end in peace, but in a truce for 30 years. That’s how it ultimately turned out...

Results of the First World War

The First World War was fought on the territory of 14 states. Countries with a total population of over 1 billion people took part in it (this is approximately 62% of the entire world population at that time). In total, 74 million people were mobilized by the participating countries, of whom 10 million died and another 20 million were injured.

As a result of the war, the political map of Europe changed significantly. Such independent states as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, and Albania appeared. Austria-Hungary split into Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Romania, Greece, France, and Italy have increased their borders. There were 5 countries that lost and lost territory: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia.

Map of the First World War 1914-1918