Individual shape of the item. Age-related characteristics of children’s perception of the shape of objects and geometric figures

One of the properties of surrounding objects is their shape. The shape of objects is generally reflected in geometric shapes Oh. Geometric figures are standards, using which a person determines the shape of objects and their parts. 230
The problem of introducing children to geometric figures and their properties should be considered in two aspects: in terms of sensory perception of the shapes of geometric figures and using them as standards in the knowledge of the shapes of surrounding objects, as well as in the sense of knowledge of the features of their structure, properties, basic connections and patterns in them construction, i.e. the actual geometric material.
In order to know what and how to teach children at different stages of their development, it is necessary first of all to analyze the characteristics of children’s sensory perception of the shape of any object, including figures, and then the ways of further development of geometric concepts and elementary geometric thinking and, further, how the transition is made from sensory perception of form to its logical awareness.
It is known that infant by the shape of the bottle he recognizes the one from which he drinks milk, and in the last months of the first year of life a tendency is clearly revealed to separate some objects from others and to isolate a figure from the background. The contour of an object is that general principle that is the starting point for both visual and tactile perception. However, the question of the role of the contour in the perception of shape and the formation of a holistic image requires further development.
Primary mastery of the form of an object is carried out in actions with it. The shape of an object, as such, is not perceived separately from the object; it is its integral feature. Specific visual reactions of tracing the contour of an object appear at the end of the second year of life and begin to precede practical actions. Children's actions with objects are different at different stages. Children strive first of all to grab an object with their hands and begin to manipulate it. Children 2.5 years old, before acting, familiarize themselves with objects visually and tactile-motor in some detail. There is a special interest in the perception of form (perceptual actions). However, the importance of practical actions remains paramount. From this follows the conclusion about the need to guide the development of perceptual actions of two-year-old children. Depending on the pedagogical guidance, the nature of children’s perceptual actions gradually reaches the cognitive level. The child begins to be interested in various features of the object, including shape. However, for a long time he cannot identify and generalize this or that feature, including the shape of various objects.
Sensory perception of the form of an object should be aimed not only at seeing and recognizing forms along with its other signs, but also at being able to, abstracting the form from the thing, see it in other things. “This perception of the shape of objects and its generalization is facilitated by children’s knowledge of standards - geometric figures. Therefore, the task of sensory development is to develop in a child the ability to recognize the shape of different objects in accordance with a standard (this or that geometric figure).
When does a child begin to distinguish geometric shapes? Experimental data from L.A. Wenger showed that children 3-4 months old have this ability. Focusing your gaze on a new figure is evidence of this.
Already in the second year of life, children freely choose their figure according to
a sample of the following pairs: square and semicircle, rectangle and triangle. But children can distinguish between a rectangle and a square, a square and a triangle only after 2.5 years. Selection based on the model of figures of more complex shapes is available approximately at the turn of 4-5 years, and reproduction of a complex figure is carried out by individual children of the fifth and sixth years of life.
At first, children perceive geometric figures unknown to them as ordinary objects, calling them by the names of these objects: a cylinder - a glass, a column, an oval - an egg, a triangle - a sail or roof, a rectangle - a window, etc. Under the teaching influence of adults, the perception of geometric figures is gradually rebuilt . Children no longer identify them with objects, but only compare them: a cylinder is like a glass, a triangle is like a roof, etc. And finally, children begin to perceive geometric figures as standards by which the shape of objects is determined (a ball, an apple is a ball , plate, saucer, wheel is round, and the scarf is square, etc.).
Knowledge of the structure of an object, its shape and size is carried out not only in the process of perceiving a particular form with vision, but also through active touch, feeling it under the control of vision and denoting it with words. The joint work of all analyzers contributes to a more accurate perception of the shape of objects. In order to better understand an object, children strive to touch it with their hand, pick it up, and turn it; Moreover, viewing and feeling are different depending on the shape and design of the object being cognized. Therefore, the main role in the perception of an object and determination of its shape is played by examination, carried out simultaneously by the visual and motor-tactile analyzers, followed by a word designation. However, preschoolers have a very low level of examination of the shape of objects; most often they are limited to cursory visual perception and therefore do not distinguish between closely similar shapes (oval and circle, rectangle and square, different triangles).
In the perceptual activity of children, tactile-motor and visual techniques gradually become the main way of recognizing shapes. Examination of figures not only provides a holistic perception of them, but also allows you to feel their features (character, directions of lines and their combinations, formed angles and vertices); the child learns to sensually identify the image as a whole and its parts in any figure. This makes it possible to further focus the child’s attention on a meaningful analysis of the figure, consciously highlighting its structural elements (sides, corners, vertices). Children are already consciously beginning to understand such properties as stability, instability, etc., to understand how vertices, angles, etc. are formed. By comparing three-dimensional and flat figures, children already find commonality between them. (“The cube has squares,” “The beam has rectangles, the cylinder has circles,” etc.).
Comparing a figure with the shape of an object helps children understand that different objects or their parts can be compared with geometric figures. Thus, gradually a geometric figure becomes the standard for determining the shape of objects.
Sensory perception of the shape of objects, geometric figures, their recognition and designation by words in conditions systematic training children are increasing significantly. Thus, according to T. Ignatova, 90% of 4-year-old children identified by touch and named the geometric figure they found in a bag, while before training, only 47% of 3-4-year-old children completed this task and only 7.5% of children could name a geometric figure.
Therefore, the task of the first stage of education for children 3-4 years old is sensory perception of the shape of objects and geometric figures.
The second stage of teaching children 5-6 years old should be devoted to the formation of systematic knowledge about geometric figures and the development of their initial techniques and methods of “geometric thinking.”
Figuring out geometric representations junior schoolchildren, who have not yet been taught basic geometric knowledge, A. M. Pyshkalo and A. A. Stolyar come to the conclusion that “geometric thinking” is quite possible to develop even in preschool age. In development " geometric knowledge“Children exhibit several different levels.
The first level is characterized by the fact that the figure is perceived by children as a whole, the child does not yet know how to identify individual elements in it, does not notice the similarities and differences between the figures, and perceives each of them separately.
At the second level, the child already identifies elements in a figure and establishes relationships both between them and between individual figures, but does not yet realize the commonality between the figures.
At the third level, the child is able to establish connections between the properties and structure of figures, connections between the properties themselves. The transition from one level to another is not spontaneous, running parallel to the biological development of a person and depending on age. It occurs under the influence of targeted training, which helps accelerate the transition to more high level. Lack of training hinders development. Education should therefore be organized in such a way that, in connection with the acquisition of knowledge about geometric figures, children also develop elementary geometric thinking.
Analytical perception of a geometric figure, the ability to identify expressed and clearly tangible elements and properties in it create conditions for further more in-depth knowledge of its structural elements, revealing essential features both within the figure itself and between a number of figures. Thus, on the basis of highlighting the most important, essential things in objects, concepts are formed (S. L. Rubinstein).
Children more and more clearly assimilate the connections between “simple” and “complex” geometric figures, see in them not only differences, but also find commonality in their construction, a hierarchy of relationships between “simple” and increasingly “complex” figures.
Children also learn the relationship between the number of sides, angles and the names of the figures (“A triangle is called that because it has three angles”; “A rectangle is called that because it has all right angles”). When counting the angles, children correctly name the shapes: “This is a hexagon, this is a pentagon, a polygon, because it has many angles - 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and maybe more, then it already looks like a circle.”
Mastering the principle of designating figures with words forms in children a general approach to any new figure, the ability to attribute it to a specific group of figures. Children's knowledge is systematized, they are able to correlate the particular with the general. All this develops the logical thinking of preschoolers, creates interest in further knowledge, and ensures mental mobility.
Knowledge of geometric shapes, their properties and relationships broadens the horizons of children, allows them to more accurately and comprehensively perceive the shape of surrounding objects, which has a positive effect on their productive activity(for example, drawing, modeling).
Of great importance in the development of geometric thinking and spatial concepts are the actions of transforming figures (from two triangles to form a square or from five sticks to form two triangles).
All these types of exercises develop spatial concepts and the beginnings of geometric thinking in children, form their skills to observe, analyze, generalize, highlight the main, essential things, and at the same time cultivate such personality qualities as focus and perseverance.
So, in preschool age, the perceptual and intellectual systematization of the shapes of geometric figures is mastered. Perceptual activity in the cognition of figures is ahead of the development of intellectual systematization.

Children's familiarization with the shape of objects occurs best through a combination of various teaching methods and techniques. Used visual methods and techniques: “Look and find the same figure”, “What does the figure look like”, etc. Wide Application in teaching they find practical methods and techniques: “Find, bring, show... lay out, draw, make a pattern”, etc. Along with visual and practical ones, verbal methods and techniques are used: “What are they called, how are they different, how are they similar; describe, tell”...

N.A. Sakulina proposed a methodological model for teaching children to examine objects, defining shape as their main feature. This model has five components:

1. holistic perception of the subject;

2. analysis of an object - isolating characteristic essential features, determining the shape of individual parts of an object (round, square, triangular, long, rounded...), likening this part to a geometric figure that is closest in shape;

3. motor-tactile sensation of form - tracing movements with simultaneous pronunciation, i.e. examination of an object;

4. again a holistic perception of the subject;

5. building a model from given shapes or parts.

Based on this scheme for teaching children, a specific technique- consistency in the formation of knowledge about geometric figures (3. E. Lebedeva, L. A. Wenger, L. I. Sysueva, V. V. Kolechko, R. L. Nepomnyashchaya).

1. Demonstration of a geometric figure and naming it.

2. Examination of a geometric figure through specific practical actions.

3. Showing several more of the same geometric shapes, but different in color and size. Comparison of geometric shapes. At the same time, children's attention is drawn to the independence of shape from the size and color of the figure.

4. Comparison of geometric shapes with objects similar in shape; finding among surrounding objects those that are close in shape to this figure.

5. Comparing objects by shape with each other using a geometric figure as a standard.

6. Comparing familiar geometric shapes, identifying common qualities and differences (oval and circle, square and rectangle, etc.).

7. Consolidating the properties of geometric shapes by measuring, modeling, drawing, laying out, constructing, etc.

Children must learn the basic steps of examining the shape of objects. Examination of a geometric figure is carried out through specific practical actions (circling along the contour). An important element of the examination is the comparison of figures of different shapes and sizes. After children have learned to compare geometric shapes with objects that are similar in shape, it is necessary to provide them with the opportunity to consolidate the properties of geometric shapes in drawing, modeling, appliqué, and design.

Children should be taught to correctly show the elements of geometric shapes (corners, sides, bases, etc.). When counting angles, the child should point only to the vertex of the angle. The teacher does not explain what a vertex is, but shows the point where two sides connect. When showing the sides, the child should run his fingers along the entire segment - from one vertex of the corner to the other. The angle itself, as part of the plane, is shown simultaneously with two fingers - the thumb and forefinger. IN volumetric figures Children identify and name the sides and bases.

In each age group, the method of familiarization with geometric shapes has its own characteristics.

In the second younger group children learn to distinguish between a ball and a cube; a circle and a square, using the technique of pairwise comparison: a ball and a cube, a cube and a block - a brick; circle and square; ball and circle; cube and square. In this case, the object should be held in the left hand, and index finger trace it along the contour with your right hand. To demonstrate geometric shapes, it is necessary to use shapes of different sizes and colors.

Children look at and compare a ball and a cube, find similarities and differences in these objects (figures). Addressing a question to the children, the teacher draws their attention to the features of the figures: “What is this?”, “What color are the balls?”, “Which one is smaller?”

According to the teacher's instructions, one child picks up a small ball, and the other takes a large one. Children pass the balls in a circle: the small ball catches up with the big ball. Then the direction of movement changes. During such games, children clarify the features of the ball - it is round, it has no corners, it can be rolled. Children compare balls of different colors and sizes. Thus, the teacher leads them to the conclusion that shape does not depend on the color and size of the object.

Children's knowledge about the cube is similarly clarified and generalized. Children take the cube in their hands, trying to roll it. It doesn't roll. The cube has corners and sides (edges), it stands stably on the table or floor. You can build houses and columns from cubes by placing one cube on top of another.

The most important point in introducing children to form is the visual and tactile-motor perception of the form, various practical actions that develop their sensory abilities.

In organizing work to familiarize children with the shape of an object, a significant place is occupied by the display (demonstration) of the figure itself, as well as methods of examining it. When examining an object, the teacher teaches children to hold the object in their left hand and trace its outline with the index finger of their right hand.

To develop children's skills in examining the shape of an object and accumulating corresponding ideas, various didactic games and exercises are organized. So, in order to learn the name and clarify the main features of individual geometric figures, the teacher organizes games: “Name the geometric figure”, “Magic bag”, “Dominoes of figures”, etc.

In the game “Magic Bag,” the teacher teaches children to select shapes by touch and find according to a pattern. Geometric shapes familiar to children are placed on the table, and the same ones are placed in a bag. First, attention is drawn to the geometric shapes placed on the table. The children call them. Then, at the teacher’s direction, the child finds one in the bag that is on the table and shows it. If the child cannot complete the task, then the teacher once again recalls the methods of examining the figure: with his right hand he slowly traces along the edge (contour) (you can also help with your left hand). When the game is repeated, the number of geometric shapes increases.

In the games “Find an object of the same shape”, “What is in the bag?”, “Geometric Lotto”, children practice finding objects using geometric patterns. Such tasks are difficult, but generally accessible to children. They develop their ability to analyze environment, abstract when perceiving the shape of objects. The child, perceiving the print that hangs on the wall in front of him, is distracted from the plot of the picture, and only highlights the shape of the frame (square).

In their free time from classes, children of this age group are very fond of playing with cut-out pictures, mosaics, and building materials.

The distinctive feature of teaching middle group children is a more detailed examination of geometric shapes. Children are introduced to new geometric shapes by comparing their models with already familiar ones or with each other: a rectangle with a square, a cylinder with a cube or a ball. From direct comparison of objects with geometric patterns, children move on to a verbal description of their shape, to generalization.

The order of viewing and comparing the figures may be as follows: what is this? What color? What size (size)? What are they made of? How are they different? How are they similar?

The main techniques can be: practical actions with objects (rolling, placing); application and application; tracing the contour, palpating; exercises in grouping and ordering - didactic games, exercises for mastering the features of geometric shapes; comparison of object shapes with geometric patterns; analysis of complex shapes. Children are required to provide a detailed verbal description of their actions (describe the shape of an object consisting of 2-4 parts: tumbler, car, etc.).

L. A. Wenger, L. I. Sysueva, T. V. Vasilyeva developed 3 types of tasks in the field of familiarizing children of the fifth year of life with the shape of objects and geometric figures:

§ tasks for mastering geometric shapes;

§ tasks to compare the shapes of real objects with geometric figures;

§ tasks for spatial analysis of a composite form.

IN senior group examination of the geometric figure becomes even more detailed and detailed. An important element of the methodology is measurement by a conditional measure. Work on the formation of ideas and concepts about geometric figures is based on comparison and contrast of geometric figures. Models are first compared in pairs, then 3-4 figures of each type are compared at once, for example quadrangles. Of particular importance is the work of depicting and recreating geometric shapes: laying out sticks and strips of paper. Based on identifying the essential features of geometric shapes, children are led to the general concept of “quadrangles.” As a result of certain work, children acquire the ability to transfer acquired knowledge to an unfamiliar situation and use it in independent activity, in design classes.

Older preschoolers learn to dissect a complex pattern into its constituent elements, name their shape and spatial position, and compose a complex pattern from geometric shapes of one or two types, different in size (size).

The methodology for developing geometric knowledge in the sixth year group does not fundamentally change. However, the examination becomes more detailed and detailed. Along with practical and direct comparison of known geometric figures, superimposition and application, measurement with a conditional measure is widely used as a methodological technique. All work on the formation of ideas and concepts about geometric figures is based on comparing and contrasting their models.

So, introducing children to a rectangle, they are shown several rectangles of different sizes, made of different materials(paper, cardboard, plastic). “Children, look at these figures. These are rectangles." At the same time, attention is drawn to the fact that the shape does not depend on the size. Children are offered to take left hand figure, and trace the outline with the index finger of your right hand. Children identify the features of this figure: the sides are equal in pairs, the angles are also equal. This is checked by bending and placing one on top of the other. Count the number of sides and angles. Then they compare the rectangle with the square, finding similarities and differences in these figures.

A square and a rectangle have four corners and four sides, all corners are equal to each other. However, a rectangle differs from a square in that a square has all sides equal, while a rectangle has only opposite sides equal, in pairs.

Special attention in this group, attention should be paid to the depiction of geometric shapes; laying out counting sticks and strips of paper. This work is carried out both with demonstration (near the teacher’s table) and handout materials.

During one of the classes, the teacher lays out a rectangle of stripes on a flan-legraph. “Children, what is the name of this figure? How many sides does a rectangle have? How many angles? Children show the sides, corners, vertices of the rectangle. Then the teacher asks: “How and what shapes can be obtained from a rectangle (create smaller rectangles, squares, triangles)?” This uses additional strips of paper. Children count the sides of the resulting figures.

Based on identifying the essential features of geometric shapes, children are led to the generalized concept of “quadrangle”. By comparing a square and a rectangle, children establish that all these figures have four sides and four corners. This number of sides and angles is a general feature that forms the basis for the definition of the concept of “quadrilateral”. Next, children compare quadrilaterals of different shapes. Children are convinced that the sides and angles are equal when they place one on top of the other.

In older preschool age, children develop the ability to transfer acquired knowledge to a situation previously unfamiliar to them, and to use this knowledge in independent activities. Knowledge about geometric figures is widely used, clarified, and consolidated in classes on visual arts, design. Such activities allow children to acquire skills in dividing a complex pattern into its component elements, as well as create patterns of complex shapes from one or two types of geometric shapes of different sizes.

So, during one of the classes, children are given envelopes with a set of models of geometric shapes. The teacher shows an application of a “robot” made up of squares and rectangles of different sizes and proportions. First, everyone looks at the sample together one by one. It is established from which parts (figures) each part is made (Fig. 32). In the same sequence, children create an ornament. The teacher shows two or three ornaments and invites the children to choose one of them, look at it carefully, and lay out the same ornament.

In volumetric figures (such as a cylinder, cube), children identify and name the sides and bases. In this case, they can be shown with several fingers or the entire palm.

Children perform practical actions, manipulate geometric shapes, and reconstruct them. In the process of such learning, children’s “mathematical” speech is enriched. Familiarization with the form, as a rule, takes up part of the lesson in mathematics, as well as in design and visual arts. During classes, overlaying, applying, contour drawing, shading, and measuring are widely used. Children cut out flat geometric shapes, and sculpt three-dimensional ones from plasticine and clay. This work is closely related to teaching children the elements of writing: tracing cells, drawing circles, ovals, drawing straight and oblique lines. Children get acquainted with checkered notebooks and look at how the pages in the notebook are lined. The teacher invites the children to find and circle the cells in different parts of the page: top, bottom, left, right, middle; draw seven squares the size of one cell with gaps between them of two (three) cells. At the same time he shows different ways completing the task: marking the initial contour with dots, drawing lines from left to right and top to bottom.

Future schoolchildren are taught to distinguish and name polygons (triangle, quadrangle, pentagon, hexagon), name and show their elements (sides, angles, vertices), divide geometric shapes into parts, compare with each other, classify by size and shape. The work is aimed, first of all, at improving the quality of this knowledge: completeness, awareness. Geometric material is widely used during classes as a demonstration and handout when forming numerical concepts, dividing a whole into parts, etc.

Throughout preschool age children are taught to examine the simple and complex shape of objects, adhering to a certain sequence: first, the general contours and the main part are identified, then the shape, spatial position, and relative size of other parts are determined. They should be taught to notice not only the similarities, but also the differences in the shape of an object from the geometric figure they are familiar with. It has great value to improve visual and other types of independent activities of children.

Form is a feature of an object that is accessible to visual and muscular-tactile perception.

In the shape of an object, more or less typical features are distinguished: roundness or elongation, stability or dismemberment, symmetry of parts or asymmetry.

The specific tasks of mental education when becoming familiar with the form are:

· Formation of ideas and knowledge about form as a sign of an object and beauty;

· Development of the ability to see, distinguish, compare, group objects according to their shape;

· Development of the ability to see form in combination with other signs in life, in objects of art;

· Development of vocabulary and coherent speech and teaching children to use precise names of forms and their features, figurative, expressive words, generalized words-concepts;

· Teaching children how to apply knowledge about shape in a variety of ways different types activities;

· Nurturing cognitive interests.

A child’s ability to perceive and see form in an object is not innate, but is formed in the process of upbringing and training.

Familiarizing children with shape as a sign of an object and a generalizing concept has a certain sequence, repetition and complication from one age group to another.

Junior group.

The teacher teaches children to see and distinguish objects by their shape, introduces them to the basic geometric shapes - a ball and a cube - and names them himself. The teacher organizes visual and tactile-muscular perception, cognitive actions with objects, teaches ways to examine objects, test them in games, in activities with building materials, and toys.

In classes with an individual child or a small subgroup, the teacher shows a ball and says: “This is a ball” - and performs actions with it, emphasizing its shape.

Cognitive practical actions should be performed repeatedly. The period of practical testing does not need to be shortened. During repeated lessons and games, the teacher again names the figure and its features.

In subsequent lessons, in games, the teacher asks the children to show and bring. Place the balls in the basket. Based on the action performed, he checks whether the children have learned the name and whether they correlate the word with the object. In the future, he exercises the children in naming the shape of an object.

By organizing games with balls and other toys, the teacher trains children to distinguish them by shape and at the same time includes something new - color - into the familiar and teaches them to distinguish balls by color. In the following lessons, the teacher offers balls of different sizes - large and small, then calls them with the words “big - small” and uses the word to reinforce the difference.

The teacher organizes a lot of play activities with cube-shaped objects - he encourages them to examine the cubes, rearrange them, and move them. Visuo-motor perceiving the cube, the child feels the edges and planes and practically knows the features of this figure.

Determining the shape and size can already be included in one lesson, since the previous mastery of the shape of the ball contributed to the development of children’s attention, the ability to look and see. Both in subsequent classes and in games, the teacher exercises the children’s ability to choose from building material cubes large and small.

Then the teacher organizes a comparison of the ball and the cube as two different figures.

In the future, he consolidates the idea of ​​​​a ball and a cube in various classes and games..

Thus, teacher ml. gr. in accordance with the program, teaches children to distinguish between a ball and a cube in shape and call them with the exact word, teaches them to apply learned concepts in different types of activities.

Middle group.

The teacher consolidates ideas about a ball and a cube and improves methods of sensorimotor examination of objects based on visual and tactile-muscular perception. Introduces children to new shapes: rectangle, square, triangle, cylinder - and teaches them to distinguish between straight, square, and triangular objects. As the content expands and becomes more complex, the requirements for children’s mental activity expand and become more complex, and new qualities are formed. cognitive activity. The teacher teaches you to see the same form in objects of different content.

And in middle group The teacher first introduces objects in which various forms are expressed, and especially those with which children need to be introduced in accordance with the requirements of the program.

The teacher familiarizes children with new figures in the usual way that is already familiar to children.

New form quality common feature Many surrounding objects should be revealed with content familiar to the child.

Mastering ideas about the basic shapes of objects, the ability to group objects according to their shapes does not occur only in classes, in didactic games, it requires “practice” in life.

You already know that the main task of drawing is to learn to see objects in three-dimensional forms, so that practical work be able to convey volume using certain expressive means - line, stroke, tone. If you have correctly and expressively drawn an object, this means that the pencil image has correctly constructed its internal basis - the structure - and has expressively conveyed the material properties (surface texture). All this, it would seem, looks simple, but you have to work long and persistently to learn how to make such drawings. You should never rely solely on certain artistic abilities. A lot of painstaking work is needed, because knowledge, skills and abilities do not come by themselves, but are the result of enormous and intense efforts.

There are no shapeless bodies in nature. If it were possible to imagine such a thing, then except for some kind of abstract (abstract) emptiness, nothing else appeared in consciousness. Therefore, one should believe in form as an organization of certain parts, constructed expediently and in strict accordance. An object in the usual sense of the word is any product created by man that is necessary for people and performs a specific function. When studying drawing, you should be guided by form in your work. The famous artist-teacher Dmitry Nikolaevich Kardovsky wrote in his book “Drawing Manual” published in Moscow in 1938: “What is form? This is a mass that has one character or another, like geometric bodies: a cube, a ball, a cylinder, etc. The living form of living natures, of course, is not a regular geometric form, but in the diagram it also approaches these geometric forms and thus repeats the same laws of the arrangement of light along perspectively receding planes that exist for geometric bodies.

The student’s task is precisely to combine and coordinate the understanding of form with techniques for depicting (constructing) on ​​a plane with light... surfaces that limit the form in space. When they draw a ball, they know what techniques should be used to depict the transitions of its surfaces in shadow and light, just as the techniques are known when depicting a cube, pyramid, cylinder or some more complex figure, etc. ...What characterizes, for example, the shape of a person’s torso? This is a cylindrical shape. If the body were a regular cylinder, then its image would be very simple, but there are bulges, depressions and other deviations in it that violate the simplicity of the cylinder. At the same time, these bulges and depressions are located along a large cylinder shape, either on the side receiving direct rays of light, or on the side that does not receive them, or in transitional places. When drawing, these deviations must be maintained accordingly in tone: 1) light, 2) shadow and 3) penumbra. The sense of form, the ability to see and convey it must be developed by the student so that it from consciousness, as they say, “passes to the ends of the fingers,” i.e. when depicting a form on a plane, the painter must feel it in the same way as a sculptor who sculpts a form from clay or carves it from stone” (Kardovsky D.N. Drawing Manual. M., 1938. P. 9).

People use the word "form" very often. Everyone correctly understands the meaning of this concept. Yes, indeed, the term “form” (from the Latin forma) is translated as a concept that allows a person to comprehend the external outline, appearance, contours of a particular object. In any image, they always show first of all the shape of the object being drawn, i.e. true outlines of it. When artists say that the three-dimensional form is well conveyed in this drawing, they thereby emphasize the veracity of the image. In fact, the concept of “volumetric form” essentially points to two words that are close in meaning, because the volume of an object also contains mass and configuration, which are also inherent in form. The volume itself should be regarded primarily as one of the quantitative characteristics of geometric bodies - capacity, which is expressed by the number of cubic units. Figures fine arts and architecture is understood by this word appearance space limited by planes.

Thus, under the volumetric form of objects, one should consider the laws of structure, i.e. features of their design.

To depict a three-dimensional form, you need: the ability of the drawer to see and understand the design (structure) features of objects and the transfer of three-dimensionality - length (or width), height and depth - the shape of these same objects on the two-dimensional plane of a sheet of paper.

Consequently, the depiction of a form in any drawing from life should be based on its construction, and not on copying the external appearance of the object. Such a construction presupposes that the draftsman has a clear, constructive approach to the surrounding objects. Since you have a two-dimensional plane in front of you, and you need to draw three-dimensional volumes, imagine a sheet of paper as a certain (conditional) space and try, based on your existing knowledge about methods of perspective drawing, to place the depicted form in it. Remember what examples from the world of geometric bodies can be used to use their combinations visible in nature to solve the problem of placing a form in paper space.

Tone drawing

When drawing an object from life, you simultaneously solve several problems, one of which is the transmission of light and shade in the image.

To see the object being drawn, it must be naturally lit ( daylight) or artificially ( electric light). The physical phenomenon of light distribution, thanks to which our vision distinguishes the surrounding reality, is called chiaroscuro in visual practice.

The perception of various forms becomes possible because reflected light rays enter the eye. Such emitted light allows you to visually perceive any object.

Illuminated objects located in space are distinguished by us as volumetric. The volumetric shape of an object in accordance with its structural structure is determined by the play of light and shadow. The peculiarity here is that the shape of the object is made up of differently located surfaces located at different angles to the rays of light, which is why the illumination of this object is uneven: the light reaches areas that are perpendicular to the rays completely, while others are distributed Weaker depending on depending on their position at a certain angle, it “slides”, as it were, but does not hit others at all.

For the draftsman, the degree of illumination of the surface of the object is also important, which depends on the strength of the source and the distance to it. The perception of illumination of the object being drawn is also influenced by the distance between it and the person drawing. This is due to the light-air environment, which forms a “haze” (from the smallest particles of dust, droplets of moisture and other suspended substances), which dissolves the sharp outlines of the boundaries of light and shadow, darkens the illuminated areas and brightens deep shadows.

So, the emission of light will give a luminous flux that propagates in one direction, reaches the object and reveals the lightness of its surface. Depending on the brightness of the light rays, the lightness of the object becomes contrasting. The word “lightness” should be understood as the light reflective ability of the surface of an object. You know; that everything we see and distinguish is connected with physical nature light capable of producing due to reflectivity material bodies certain signals to our eye, which reacts to them with a remarkable property - color perception. It goes without saying that lightness is determined primarily by the peculiarity of the surface of an object in the reflection of light. White, yellow, and blue colors reflect more light than black, blue, and brown.

Therefore, we should talk in more detail about chiaroscuro. Perhaps best of all, a detailed description of all gradations of light and shade is possible using the example of a spherical surface.

The shape of the ball is remarkable in that it is uniform on all sides, is not distorted due to the peculiarities of perspective changes in the object, and gives a complete understanding of the laws of light and shadow. While in space, the ball in any position is equally illuminated by one light source and shaded from the opposite side. This means that rays of light fall on this geometric body, differently illuminating exactly half of its spherical surface. Why is it different? - you may ask. After all, if half is illuminated, it follows that the illumination is the same everywhere. That's the point, it's not the same. Only an inept draftsman can imagine an illuminated surface of the same tone, and even if he sees that this is not so, he will nevertheless retain his belief. Is this why in the drawings of the ball by people unfamiliar with the concept of chiaroscuro, half of the image is left untouched with a pencil, and the second is shaded evenly.

Let's look at the pattern of light distribution on the surface of the ball. Let the plaster model of the ball be placed on a light gray plane at a distance of one of its dimensions from a white matte wall and illuminated artificial light, pouring from the left side from above at an angle of 45°. It will not be difficult to think correctly that the model is illuminated at this angle and that the brightest light on the surface of the geometric body will concentrate on the area that is perpendicular to the direction of the rays from the source. As you can see, we're talking about about the direct impact of light rays on a surface and, therefore, about the right angle between the surface and the ray falling on it. Some of the light rays hit the surface of the ball due to its structure at increasingly acute angles, and the sharper the angle, the less light hits the sphere. It turns out that the curved surface should gradually go into shadow as the light decreases.

Finally, in the distribution of rays over the sphere, there comes a moment when the curved surface goes beyond the reach of light and plunges into shadow.

The most brightly illuminated spot on the surface of the ball is called a flare, which is very visible on any shiny surface, such as glass. A light penumbra is visible around the highlight, proving the rules of light distribution over the spherical surface. Artists call it halftone. The halftone of the first strip around the highlight imperceptibly along its outer edge passes into the next one, which also imperceptibly merges with the now third, etc. All these transitions, invisible to the eye, merge with each other thanks to the spherical surface of the body, until the last of them just as smoothly disappears with its edge into the shadow. Each new halftone is slightly darker than the previous one.

A shadow is a part of an object that gets its name due to the absence of light, being outside its distribution. But everything that is in the shadow also obeys its own laws, being influenced environment. You remember that a condition was set according to which the ball must be separated from the white wall at a distance of one of its sizes. The word “white” is used in relation to the wall, and this is not without reason. You begin to guess that the wall is illuminated by the same source, and therefore, by reflecting the light, it must now make its own amendment to the light-and-shadow relationships inside spatial environment. The light reflected from the wall at an angle of 45°, but now from the right side, falls on the shadow, and although it is much weaker than direct light, nevertheless its effect significantly affects the smooth lightening of the shadow. On the surface of the ball, which is in the shadow, due to the light reflected from the wall, a phenomenon called reflex is formed. In that part of the ball that is connected to the surface of the table, a reflex from this surface is visible.

The shadow on the ball is called its own shadow. To the table from the ball in strict accordance with the direction luminous flux another shadow fell from the source, which is called the falling shadow.

Every artist should know the patterns of light distribution on the surface and around a visible object.

A person perceives the surrounding reality with all its phenomena, forms and volumes visually. In visual perception, the main role is played by his ability to see the world in color. If our primitive ancestor had not had this innate ability, who knows, humanity as such would have existed. Distinguishing shades of color helped the people of those distant centuries to literally survive in the fight against the harsh and merciless forces of nature. Would they be able to survive if the world around them was absolutely colorless, what is called gray or black and white?

But why then, you may rightfully ask, are black-and-white literate drawings so truthful and attractive? We’ll wait a little while answering this question, but here we’ll come close to the concept with which we will have to associate the execution of images, taking into account the requirements of truthfulness and tone.

Before defining this concept, let us turn to the surrounding reality and name some examples related to visual activity.

Wonderful Russian landscape painters Alexey Kondratyevich Savrasov, Ivan Ivanovich Shishkin and Fyodor Aleksandrovich Vasiliev produced many completed pencil drawings of nature in their work. Each drawing not only amazes with its excellent craftsmanship, but also has a number of advantages, which include correctly taken light-and-shadow relationships. Indeed, how can you achieve differences in the tone of the crown of a tree and grass, foreground and background, bushes and weeds? The masters achieved such distinction with brilliance, and the black and white pencil in their hands gave such tonal effects that can be compared with paintings.

With a simple graphite pencil you can convey the shine of water and glass, velvet and satin fabric, tree bark and the most delicate shape of a rose petal. And the point here is in the tone, and only in it.

The word “tone” (from the Greek tonos - tension) means the general light-and-shadow structure of the image (in painting, this concept corresponds to the color structure of the work).

So, tone is the light and shadow structure of an image. Consequently, the artist who performs a long-term creative drawing of a landscape or everyday scene is faced with the task of conveying in his work the tonal relationships between all the elements of the image, so that the drawing impresses the viewer not only with deep life content, but also with the expressiveness of the form.

You already know that the whitest paper is much darker than the true highlight on a glossy surface, and the softest drawing material, not to mention a graphite pencil, gives the most black spot on paper, it is still many times lighter than natural black space. Therefore, you must always remember that truthfulness in a light-tonal (tone) drawing can only be achieved by achieving light-and-shadow relationships that are proportional to nature.

For a preliminary acquaintance with the solution of tone pattern problems, let us turn to the analysis of a still life, composed in our imagination of three objects. Let it be a glass jar with cherry jam, a light yellow apple and a white tablecloth. All these objects come to mind in your memory, both as a whole and individually. A shiny jar filled with dark jam with an abundance of berries looks damp black, and the apple looks darker than the tablecloth, despite its light hue.

The still life is illuminated by daylight, and all its contrasting features are clearly visible. All the reflexes are clearly visible on the jar, and the apple, located in front of the vessel with jam, even in the shadows, sharply contrasts with part of the dark silhouette. The snow-white tablecloth beautifully emphasizes the voluminous shapes of the fruit and jar. Of course, such a still life rightfully claims to be a picturesque solution, since its color qualities are obvious.

Is it possible to paint this still life, preserving the first impression of this freshness in the image and managing to subordinate the sharp contrasts between all objects to the general tonal state of nature? Of course, you can draw such a still life if you have the necessary knowledge and skills in visual arts based on a holistic vision of nature.

In the process of graphic representation, it is completely pointless to try to convey the absolute relationships of lightness in nature. You already know why this is impossible. You just need to adhere to proportional brightness ratios.

All the various tonal relationships can be conveyed by the modest means of drawing.

Where to start? By establishing the so-called tonal scale - the relationship between plain white paper and the thickest layer of graphite substance deposited on its surface. Between these two extremes all other gradations of tone are in corresponding ratios from light to dark.

So, in the presented still life, all the illuminated and shadowed places of objects are distinguished by a wide variety of different tones, which are revealed with a simple graphite pencil. Therefore, when working on any educational task be sure to set the tonal scale. It can be depicted as a strip of several (according to the number of main spots of light and shadow observed in nature) rectangles, shaded to convey the entire range of shades in the correct subordination. This will help a lot in your work, it will give great opportunity“feeling” the gradations will give you confidence.

It is very important to practice developing the ability to subtly distinguish gradations of lightness in full-scale productions. After some time, you will begin to pick up even small tonal differences in nature.

But let's return to the imaginary still life. You have set the tonal scale and it turns out that nine main spots of light and shadow are visible on location. This is the glare on glass jar and an apple, common spots of the tablecloth and background, as well as an apple, two shadow spots of shadows from a jar and an apple, a common spot of a jar with its contents in the light and a common spot in the vessel’s own shadow.

When modeling an image with tone, you would need to maintain a proportional relationship between the aperture of some spots in nature and their corresponding places in the drawing. At the same time, in no case should you get carried away with working on any particular part of the image, but only work in relationships all the time, constantly comparing the drawing with nature. Working on a separate place in a drawing without connection with others is fraught with complications associated with violating the integrity of the image. When doing such elaboration, you begin to compare a separate piece with the same one in nature and, naturally, move away from consciously reducing the brightness or density of the shadow in the drawing.

All details in kind should never be conveyed in a drawing. This is impossible. In nature, all the details are connected with the general, subordinate to it, but in a drawing it is hardly possible to link all this with the general. Thus, tone drawing requires a developed sense of form, design, skillful study of form with chiaroscuro and final generalization so that the image looks collected and complete, and, most importantly, it must convey relationships in tone that are proportional to nature.

Cube drawing

One of the outstanding artists of France, Ingres, once said well about drawing: “Drawing does not mean simply making outlines; the drawing does not consist only of lines. Drawing is also expressiveness, internal form, plan, modeling” (Ingres on art. Collection. M., 1962. P. 56).

When drawing plaster models of geometric bodies from life, you need to depict each body, modeling it by conveying light-and-shadow relationships. You learned about tone drawing from the previous paragraph.

Essentially, this is your first rather lengthy drawing, in which there will be some difficult work associated with the pencil drawing technique. You are faced with a choice of technique - to draw in tone using shading or shading. Hatching is recommended, as it greatly disciplines and teaches one to approach the drawing carefully and with concentration. The peculiarity of this technique is that the strokes must be laid according to the shape of the model, and if this requirement is not adhered to, very soon you can see that the strokes covering the surface of the paper are applied at random, i.e. thoughtlessly, destroy the drawing, do not reveal the three-dimensional form.

The cube model should be illuminated with artificial light, the source of which should be located at the top left. In this case, both the entire volume of the body and the light and shadow gradations are clearly visible from the point of view you choose. The cube is placed at an angle to the person drawing, slightly below eye level, so that the top edge is visible. The background should be light, and the model should be placed on a gray drapery, spread without folds on a stand for life.

To get started, you need to remember the previous exercises on drawing frames of geometric bodies from life. You still have to solve similar problems now. True, now the cube appears before you in the form in which it is truly perceived as volumetric. The frame allowed us to see right through the cube, with all its faces and edges. Now some of them are not visible, but you need to be able to “see” them with the eye, so that when constructing them taking into account future abbreviations, you must certainly show them. Only then do we speak about the constructive structure of the shape of a geometric body.

However, it is impossible to draw on paper without first placing an image. Only a few virtuosos of academic drawing could start depicting a particular statue from one point and, without lifting the pencil from the paper, draw a very precise outline of the ancient sculpture on the sheet. You need to act much more simply and take the pencil away from the paper many times in order to look at the full-scale setting and at your sheet and draw on it the general shape of the cube, thus placing the drawing, and then refine it by comparing it with nature. The general shape of the cube is drawn on paper so that the outline is not very large, but not small either. It is most appropriate to imagine a sheet of paper as a conditional space in which the cube model takes its rightful place. Of course, at first such an idea is difficult, but in each new exercise it is necessary to include this unique “mechanism” in order to eventually bring it to automatism.

The outlined outline of the cube has taken its place on the paper, and you can step back a little to see the layout of the drawing from a distance and once again check whether the image is positioned correctly or incorrectly in this case in the format. Of course, further work largely depends on how you first placed the drawing.

Begin clarifying values ​​by visual comparison. Having chosen a certain height of the front vertical edge of the cube, subordinate the rest to it, but taking into account future changes in nature. First, determine the location of this edge closest to you in the intended silhouette of the image. Then mark the height of this edge, draw a vertical segment, and at its lowest point draw a strictly horizontal line, which will become auxiliary in construction. A little later you will need to imagine a horizontal line perpendicular to the base of the edge in real life, in order to show, together with the one drawn on paper, the angle formed by the horizontal edge of the right side. For comparison, place a pencil or ruler at the base of the plaster model of the cube to see the angle in real life.

Further work on drawing a plaster model of the cube is carried out as a gradual identification of the constructive basis of the object. Using guidelines, construct the bottom edge, trying to “see” its outline from all sides, i.e. show the invisible edges, as was done when constructing the frame of the cube. At the same time, mark all the other vertical edges, constantly comparing their size with the edge closest to you.

Knowing the rules of perspective, associate visible changes in the shape of the cube with the construction. The two vanishing points of the conditional continuations of the edges, located at an angle to you, remain guidelines for constructing all the remaining four upper ones.

After you have built the “skeleton” of the cube, compare the drawing with nature and think about what catches your eye first of all - the entire cube or the details of the shape. In this case, any inaccuracies will become visible. For now, they are easy to eliminate, because when constructing the shape of a geometric body, we hope you did not overdo it in drawing pencil marks on paper. Remember, when constructing the shape of the depicted object, all lines should be drawn easily and confidently.

Why did you see inaccuracies in the drawing? Our vision, as it became known thanks to experimental data from psychologists, first grasps the general shape of an object and, as it were, fixes it for a short time.

Having eliminated construction errors, check the image again with nature and make sure that the design of the drawn cube matches the visible model. Since the image of a cube on paper is drawn relatively quickly, with proper construction you should not outline the three-dimensional shape of a geometric body with light shading, thereby showing the shadow side of the object, because it suggested itself - it is known that we draw the likeness of an object, and what our eye sees in nature, he “wants” to see it in the drawing.

Light and shadow relationships in the drawing must also be built. We use different words when applied to visual activity, for example, “construction scale”, “tone scale”. In the first expression, you need to keep in mind the definition in the drawing of the sizes and ratios of the parts of the object in comparison with nature.

When drawing from life, you quite rightfully try to convey the image as you perceive the object. By shading or shading, you simulate the volume of an object, showing in the image the illuminated, transitional from light to shadow, and shaded areas observed in nature. Finish this work only after making sure that the light and shadow relationships are correctly conveyed in the drawing. By doing this, you have maintained the tonal scale in the image, i.e. managed to find proportional relationships between the darkest and lightest tones.

Tone patterns are created by the skillful distribution of light, penumbra and shadow using line art.

When modeling the shape of a cube with tone, do not rush to immediately lay out the shadow face of the geometric body. Firstly, this will not work, and secondly, just as they don’t draw, they don’t apply the tone in parts. The point here is the difference between natural light and the whiteness of the paper, the materiality of a natural object and the surface of a sheet of paper shaded with a pencil, etc.

It is possible to achieve the correct (and not exact) tone by intelligently constructed relationships in the drawing that are proportional to nature.

Therefore, we recommend this approach to conveying light-and-shadow relationships: select the darkest shade of shading that you use in a certain place in the drawing and do not repeat it anywhere else, and all other gradations will vary from this dark to the tone of the paper itself.

Monitor the overall illumination of nature and convey this in the drawing.

Diversify your pencil technique, do not cover the area of ​​the drawing with thoughtless, monotonous “hand-friendly” shading. The texture of the plaster itself tells the thoughtful draftsman how to cover the paper with a layer of pencil.

At the end of the work, summarize the image, i.e. achieve the elimination of contrasts that hurt the eyes or the mechanical set of individual tones, and bring the drawing into the general subordination of all tones (Fig. 18). Learn to convey the correct tonal relationships that express the form and material in the drawing.

Rice. 18

Cylinder drawing

The principle of lighting the next model for drawing from life remains the same. This time you will be doing a tone drawing of a cylinder - a geometric body formed by rotating a rectangular plane around a single axis.

The shape of the cylinder is peculiar. Unlike a cube, light is distributed over a cylindrical surface in a much more complex manner. The bases of the cylinder are round planes, and if they are at any angle (from a perspective), they already look like ellipses.

You drew a wire model of this body and practically studied its structural basis.

To build a vertical cylinder, start by laying out the overall shape of the body. In order not to make a mistake in placing the general shape (white silhouette) of the cylinder in the vertical format of a sheet of paper, draw a light vertical line in the middle and visually determine the height of the depicted body, and then its width.

Next, the construction of the cylinder shape turns out to be effective means development of knowledge and practical skills in drawing, as it helps to well understand the rules of perspective and the constructive structure of objects. Carrying out this work, you must act confidently and hold your pencil freely.

Having built the frame of the cylinder, in which both bases are correctly depicted in perspective (the lower one is a little wider, as it looked in nature), compare the image with nature and proceed to modeling the shape in tone. If in the tonal pattern of the cube there was a certain complexity caused by the transfer of proportional natures of light and shadow relationships, then in the tonal characteristics of the cylinder additional efforts are needed to understand the degree of distribution of gradations of light and shadow over its specific surface.

Be sure to understand the gradations, since instead of conveying a three-dimensional shape, the drawn image may look as if it is wrinkled or flattened. To prevent this from happening, be extremely careful in modeling the surface of the cylinder built on paper.

The light and shade solution of the cylinder shape is subject to the knowledge of the painter. Everyone sees how the light spreading over the rounded surface of the cylinder clearly builds the shape of a geometric body. A small area on a cylindrical surface looks most striking. This is a glare, and its phenomenon is caused by the fact that light rays hit this part of the volume strictly perpendicularly. Next, the light begins to slide, as it were, along the curved surface and, of course, weakens the illumination of the object until its effect is interrupted by the area extending beyond the border between it and the shadow, becoming the darkest spot. Consequently, the cylindrical surface gives a clear visual representation of the sequential distribution of light and shadow gradations approximately in the following alternation: halftone, light, highlight, light, halftone, shadow, reflex. Of course, the transitions between them are completely indistinguishable, and this is one of the difficulties in conveying the three-dimensional shape of a cylinder in a drawing. This means that you need not to achieve absolute similarity of the drawn cylinder with nature, but to ensure the correct transmission of the proportional relationships of tone gradations (Fig. 19).

The background in a tone pattern serves as an integral part of the spatial image. In addition, it affects general condition illumination, being either neutral or actively influencing the perception of the object.

Rice. 19

Ball drawing

The construction of such a geometric body as a ball is not particularly difficult, if we exclude the impeccable accuracy of drawing a curved line. However, it is needed only during construction, and in the completed tone drawing it will disappear as if it does not exist at all. It has already been said that lines are not the boundaries of form.

Rice. 20

A plaster model of a ball, intended for drawing from life, is placed in front of the person drawing at a distance that does not necessarily correspond to the triple height of the nature. The well-lit nature on the left and above is visible from a slightly greater distance.

You can build a circle with a vertical line, intersecting it with a horizontal line and two inclined ones at an angle of 45°. Having laid out equal radii everywhere from the center, easily draw a closed curve that will become the boundary of the mass of the ball.

After the circle is outlined, clarify its boundaries, remove auxiliary constructions and begin to identify spherical shape ball.

The sculptural term “sculpting” is quite appropriate here. Indeed, it is possible to achieve the impression of a spherical shape (spherical volume) in a drawing only by correctly determining the tonal relationships - as if “sculpting” the shape.

The gradual change in illumination of the ball is also expressed in the same gradations as that of the cylinder, differing only in the characters of the surface. In the cylinder, all the invisible transitions that lighten towards the highlight and gradually fade away when approaching the shadow are distributed along a straight vertical line. The ball has its own spherical surface, and the light and shadow goes along it as if in a circle.

Light rays, falling perpendicularly onto the spherical surface, form a highlight on the ball, around which an imperceptible darkening begins, spreading more and more in gradually increasing arcs, until finally it turns into a moon-shaped shadow with invisible outlines, which does not reach the rounded edge of the body, because it is prevented by a reflex , itself gradually brightening as it approaches the falling shadow.

It is very difficult for an inexperienced draftsman to convey such a distribution of light-and-shadow transitions. This requires diligence and a culture of drawing, understanding of the task, thoughtfulness of each stage of the work.

Please note that following the rules for modeling shapes in tone with a variety of shading techniques within reasonable limits gives inevitably positive results.

Correctly taken light and shadow transitions in the image convey the illusion of the materiality of plaster (Fig. 20).

Security questions. Practical tasks

1. Define the concept of chiaroscuro.

2. Explain the patterns of light distribution according to shape.

3. What is tone?

4. How to explain tonal relationships?

5. What are the main patterns of tonal relationships?

6. Perform several exercises aimed at mastering a variety of pencil techniques.

7. Do an exercise to gradually increase the tone.

8. Draw any spherical object in tone from life.