Spacecraft. Reusable spaceships. What extra spacecraft are there for children?

Soyuz TMA-6

Spacecraft (SV) is the general name for technical devices used to perform various tasks in outer space, as well as conduct research and other types of work on the surface of various celestial bodies. The means of delivering spacecraft into orbit are launch vehicles or airplanes.

A spacecraft, one of the main tasks of which is to transport people or equipment in the upper part of the earth's atmosphere - the so-called near space, is called a spacecraft (SC) or a spacecraft (SCAV).

The areas of use of spacecraft determine their division into the following groups:

suborbital;
near-Earth orbital, moving in geocentric orbits of artificial Earth satellites;
interplanetary (expeditionary);
planetary.

It is customary to distinguish between automatic satellites (AES) and manned spacecraft. Manned spacecraft, in particular, include all types of manned spacecraft (SC) and orbital space stations (OS). (Despite the fact that modern orbital stations fly in the region of near space, and can formally be called “Spacecraft,” in the established tradition, they are called “Spacecraft.”)

The name "Spacecraft" is sometimes also used to refer to active (that is, maneuvering) satellites, in order to emphasize their differences from passive satellites. In most cases, the meanings of the terms “Spacecraft” and “Spacecraft” are synonymous and interchangeable.

In recently actively researched projects to create orbital-hypersonic aircraft as parts of aerospace systems (AKS), the names aerospace apparatus (ASV) are often used, denoting spaceplanes and spacecraft AKS, designed to perform controlled flight, as in airless space space and in the dense atmosphere of the Earth.

While there are several dozen countries with satellites, the most complex technologies for automatic return and interplanetary spacecraft have been mastered by only a few countries - the USSR/Russia, the USA, China, Japan, India, Europe/ESA. Manned spacecraft have only the first three of them (in addition, Japan and Europe have spacecraft visited by people in orbit, in the form of ISS modules and trucks). Also, only the first three of them have the technology to intercept satellites in orbit (although Japan and Europe are close to it due to dockings).

In 2005, 55 spacecraft launches took place (there were more spacecraft themselves, since several spacecraft can be launched during one launch). Russia accounted for 26 launches. The number of commercial launches was 18.

Spacecraft

Based on their operating mode, the following types of spacecraft are distinguished:

artificial Earth satellites - the general name for all devices located in a geocentric orbit, that is, revolving around the Earth
automatic interplanetary stations (space probes) - devices that fly between the Earth and other cosmic bodies; at the same time, they can both go into orbit around the body under study and study them from flight trajectories; some devices are then sent beyond the solar system
spacecraft, automatic or manned, are used to deliver cargo and people into Earth orbit; there are plans for flights to the orbits of other planets
orbital stations - devices designed for long-term stay and work of people in Earth orbit
landers - used to deliver people and materials from orbit around or interplanetary trajectory to the surface of a planet
planetary rovers - automatic laboratory complexes or vehicles for moving along the surface of a planet or other celestial body

Based on the presence of a return function:

Returnable - provide for the return of people and materials to Earth, performing a soft or hard landing
Non-recoverable - when the resource is used up, they usually leave orbit and burn up in the atmosphere

According to the functions performed, the following classes are distinguished:

meteorological
navigational
communication satellites, television broadcasting, telecommunication satellites
research
geophysical
geodetic
astronomical
Earth remote sensing
reconnaissance and military satellites
other
Many spacecraft perform several functions at once.

Also according to mass characteristics:

femto- - up to 100 g
pico - up to 1 kg
nano- - 1-10 kg
micro - 10-100 kg
mini - 100-500 kg
small - 500-1000 kg
large - more than 1000 kg

In general, the flight of a spacecraft is divided into an ascent section, an orbital flight section, and a landing section. At the launch site, the spacecraft must acquire the required escape velocity in a given direction. The orbital segment is characterized by the inertial motion of the vehicle in accordance with the laws of celestial mechanics. The landing section is designed to reduce the speed of the returning vehicle to the permissible landing speed.

The spacecraft consists of several components, first of all, it is the target equipment that ensures the fulfillment of the task facing the spacecraft. In addition to the target equipment, there is usually a number of service systems that ensure long-term operation of the device in outer space conditions, these are: power supply systems, thermal control, radiation protection, motion control, orientation, emergency rescue, landing, control, separation from the carrier, separation and docking, on-board radio complex, life support. Depending on the function performed by the spacecraft, some of the listed service systems may be absent; for example, communication satellites do not have emergency rescue or life support systems.

The vast majority of spacecraft systems require power; a combination of solar panels and chemical batteries is usually used as a source of electricity. Less commonly used are other sources, such as fuel cells, radioisotope batteries, nuclear reactors, and disposable galvanic cells.

The spacecraft continuously receives heat from internal sources (instruments, units, etc.) and from external ones: direct solar radiation, radiation reflected from the planet, the planet’s own radiation, friction against the remnants of the planet’s atmosphere at the height of the spacecraft. The device also loses heat in the form of radiation. Many spacecraft components are temperature-sensitive and do not tolerate overheating or hypothermia. The thermal management system is responsible for maintaining the balance between the received thermal energy and its output, the redistribution of thermal energy between the structures of the apparatus and thus ensuring the specified temperature.

The spacecraft control system controls the propulsion system of the spacecraft in order to ensure the orientation of the spacecraft and perform maneuvers. Usually has connections with target equipment and other service subsystems in order to monitor and manage their state. As a rule, it is capable of communicating via an on-board radio complex with ground control services.

To ensure monitoring of the state of the spacecraft, control, and transmission of information from target equipment, a communication channel with the ground control complex is required. Radio communication is mainly used for this. When the spacecraft is far away from the Earth, highly directional antennas and their guidance systems are required.

A life support system is necessary for manned spacecraft, as well as for devices on board which biological experiments are carried out. Includes reserves of necessary substances, as well as regeneration and disposal systems.

The spacecraft orientation system includes devices for determining the current orientation of the spacecraft (solar sensor, star sensors, etc.) and actuators (attitude thrusters and power gyroscopes).

The propulsion system of the spacecraft allows you to change the speed and direction of motion of the spacecraft. Typically a chemical rocket engine is used, but it can also be electric, nuclear or other engines; A solar sail can also be used.

The spacecraft emergency rescue system is typical for manned spacecraft, as well as for vehicles with nuclear reactors (US-A) and nuclear warheads (R-36orb).

Spacecraft in all their diversity are both the pride and concern of humanity. Their creation was preceded by a centuries-old history of the development of science and technology. The space age, which allowed people to look at the world in which they live from the outside, has taken us to a new level of development. A rocket in space today is not a dream, but a matter of concern for highly qualified specialists who are faced with the task of improving existing technologies. What types of spacecraft are distinguished and how they differ from each other will be discussed in the article.

Definition

Spacecraft is a general name for any device designed to operate in space. There are several options for their classification. In the simplest case, spacecraft are divided into manned and automatic. The former, in turn, are divided into spaceships and stations. Different in their capabilities and purpose, they are similar in many respects in structure and equipment used.

Flight Features

After launch, any spacecraft goes through three main stages: insertion into orbit, flight itself and landing. The first stage involves the device developing the speed necessary to enter outer space. In order to get into orbit, its value must be 7.9 km/s. Complete overcoming of gravity involves the development of a second equal to 11.2 km/s. This is exactly how a rocket moves in space when its target is remote areas of the Universe.

After liberation from attraction, the second stage follows. During an orbital flight, the movement of spacecraft occurs by inertia, due to the acceleration given to them. Finally, the landing stage involves reducing the speed of the ship, satellite or station to almost zero.

"Filling"

Each spacecraft is equipped with equipment that matches the tasks it is designed to solve. However, the main discrepancy is related to the so-called target equipment, which is necessary precisely for obtaining data and various scientific research. Otherwise, the equipment of the spacecraft is similar. It includes the following systems:

• energy supply - most often solar or radioisotope batteries, chemical batteries, and nuclear reactors supply spacecraft with the necessary energy;
• communication - carried out using a radio wave signal; at a significant distance from the Earth, accurate pointing of the antenna becomes especially important;
• life support - the system is typical for manned spacecraft, thanks to it it becomes possible for people to stay on board;
• orientation - like any other ships, space ships are equipped with equipment to constantly determine their own position in space;
• movement - spacecraft engines allow changes in flight speed, as well as in its direction.

Classification

One of the main criteria for dividing spacecraft into types is the operating mode, which determines their capabilities. Based on this feature, devices are distinguished:

• located in a geocentric orbit, or artificial earth satellites;
• those whose purpose is to study remote areas of space - automatic interplanetary stations;
• used to deliver people or necessary cargo into the orbit of our planet, they are called spaceships, can be automatic or manned;
• created for people to stay in space for a long period - this is;
• engaged in the delivery of people and cargo from orbit to the surface of the planet, they are called descent;
• those capable of exploring the planet, directly located on its surface, and moving around it are planetary rovers.

Let's take a closer look at some types.

AES (artificial earth satellites)

The first devices launched into space were artificial Earth satellites. Physics and its laws make launching any such device into orbit a difficult task. Any device must overcome the gravity of the planet and then not fall on it. To do this, the satellite needs to move at or slightly faster. Above our planet, a conditional lower limit of the possible location of the satellite is identified (passes at an altitude of 300 km). A closer placement will lead to a fairly rapid deceleration of the device in atmospheric conditions.

Initially, only launch vehicles could deliver artificial Earth satellites into orbit. Physics, however, does not stand still, and today new methods are being developed. Thus, one of the methods often used recently is launching from another satellite. There are plans to use other options.

The orbits of spacecraft revolving around the Earth can lie at different altitudes. Naturally, the time required for one lap also depends on this. Satellites, whose orbital period is equal to a day, are placed on the so-called It is considered the most valuable, since the devices located on it appear motionless to an earthly observer, which means there is no need to create mechanisms for rotating antennas.

AMS (automatic interplanetary stations)

Scientists obtain a huge amount of information about various objects of the Solar System using spacecraft sent beyond the geocentric orbit. AMS objects are planets, asteroids, comets, and even galaxies accessible for observation. The tasks posed to such devices require enormous knowledge and effort from engineers and researchers. AWS missions represent the embodiment of technological progress and are at the same time its stimulus.

Manned spacecraft

Devices created to deliver people to their intended destination and return them back are in no way inferior in technological terms to the described types. The Vostok-1, on which Yuri Gagarin made his flight, belongs to this type.

The most difficult task for the creators of a manned spacecraft is ensuring the safety of the crew during the return to Earth. Also an important part of such devices is the emergency rescue system, which may be necessary when the ship is launched into space using a launch vehicle.

Spacecraft, like all astronautics, are constantly being improved. Recently, the media have often seen reports about the activities of the Rosetta probe and the Philae lander. They embody all the latest achievements in the field of space shipbuilding, calculation of vehicle motion, and so on. The landing of the Philae probe on the comet is considered an event comparable to Gagarin's flight. The most interesting thing is that this is not the crown of humanity’s capabilities. New discoveries and achievements still await us in terms of both space exploration and the structure

Vacuum, weightlessness, hard radiation, impacts of micrometeorites, lack of support and designated directions in space - all these are factors of space flight that are practically not found on Earth. To cope with them, spacecraft are equipped with many devices that no one thinks about in everyday life. The driver, for example, usually does not need to worry about keeping the car in a horizontal position, and to turn it is enough to turn the steering wheel. In space, before any maneuver, you have to check the orientation of the device along three axes, and turns are performed by engines - after all, there is no road from which you can push off with your wheels. Or, for example, a propulsion system - it is simplified to represent tanks with fuel and a combustion chamber from which flames burst out. Meanwhile, it includes many devices, without which the engine in space will not work, or even explode. All this makes space technology unexpectedly complex compared to its terrestrial counterparts. Rocket engine parts

On Most modern spacecraft are powered by liquid rocket engines. However, in zero gravity it is not easy to provide them with a stable supply of fuel. In the absence of gravity, any liquid, under the influence of surface tension forces, tends to take the shape of a sphere. Usually, a lot of floating balls will form inside the tank. If the fuel components flow unevenly, alternating with gas filling the voids, combustion will be unstable. In the best case, the engine will stop - it will literally “choke” on a gas bubble, and in the worst case - an explosion. Therefore, to start the engine, you need to press the fuel against the intake devices, separating the liquid from the gas. One way to “precipitate” fuel is to turn on auxiliary engines, for example, solid fuel or compressed gas engines. For a short time they will create acceleration, and the liquid will be pressed against the fuel intake by inertia, simultaneously freeing itself from gas bubbles. Another way is to ensure that the first portion of liquid always remains in the intake. To do this, you can place a mesh screen near it, which, due to the capillary effect, will hold part of the fuel to start the engine, and when it starts, the rest will “settle” by inertia, as in the first option.

But there is a more radical way: pour fuel into elastic bags placed inside the tank, and then pump gas into the tanks. For pressurization, nitrogen or helium is usually used, stored in high-pressure cylinders. Of course, this is extra weight, but with low engine power you can get rid of fuel pumps - gas pressure will ensure the supply of components through pipelines into the combustion chamber. For more powerful engines, pumps with an electric or even a gas turbine drive are indispensable. In the latter case, the turbine is spun by a gas generator - a small combustion chamber that burns the main components or special fuel.

Maneuvering in space requires high precision, which means a regulator is needed that constantly adjusts fuel consumption, providing the calculated thrust force. It is important to maintain the correct ratio of fuel and oxidizer. Otherwise, the efficiency of the engine will drop, and in addition, one of the fuel components will run out before the other. The flow of components is measured by placing small impellers in the pipelines, the rotation speed of which depends on the speed of fluid flow. And in low-power engines, the flow rate is rigidly set by calibrated washers installed in the pipelines.

For safety, the propulsion system is equipped with emergency protection that turns off a faulty engine before it explodes. It is controlled automatically, since in emergency situations the temperature and pressure in the combustion chamber can change very quickly. In general, engines and fuel and pipeline facilities are an object of increased attention in any spacecraft. In many cases, the fuel reserve determines the lifespan of modern communications satellites and scientific probes. Often a paradoxical situation is created: the device is fully operational, but cannot operate due to exhaustion of fuel or, for example, a gas leak to pressurize the tanks.

Modern spacecraft are becoming more technologically advanced and smaller, and launching such satellites with heavy rockets is unprofitable. This is where the light Soyuz comes in handy. The first launch and the start of flight tests will take place next year.

I turn on the hydraulics. We begin testing. Overload 0.2, frequency 11.

This platform is an imitation of a railway carriage, with a valuable cargo on it - a rocket. The fuel tank of the Soyuz 2-1V rocket is being tested for strength.

“It must withstand everything, all loads. Sensors must show that no emergency has occurred inside,” says Boris Baranov, deputy head of the research and testing complex at TsSKB Progress.

The rocket is shaken non-stop for 100 hours. The load level is constantly growing. In such tests, they create everything that can happen on the way from Samara to the launch site - the cosmodrome.

The tests are over, thanks everyone.

So, from test to test, a new rocket is born. The two-stage lightweight launch vehicle "Soyuz 2 1V" is at the finish line. This is the assembled first stage, the one that is responsible for lifting the rocket off the ground.

The NK-33 engine is powerful and very economical.

An engine with a legendary history. In 1968, in a bundle of 34 pieces, it gave unimaginable power to the N-1 lunar rocket, the “Tsar Rocket,” which was supposed to fly to the Moon.

Even then, the jet thrust of the engine was 154 tons.

“The rocket didn’t take off, the engine remained, and now we are using it for new developments. It works great in all tests,” said First Deputy General Director, General Designer of TsSKB Progress Ravil Akhmetov.

The interest in this engine was enormous even in those years. The Americans bought some of the NK-33s, tested them and even licensed them. Several launches of carriers with this engine have already been carried out under the American space program. Decades later, within the walls of the Russian TsSKB Progress, a new rocket with a well-developed heart is born. “After a while, the engine worked without any problems. We decided to implement our groundwork, our intellectual property in Soyuz 2-1V,” said Alexander Kirilin, General Director of TsSKB Progress. With such a familiar name “Soyuz”, with such complex encryption “ 2-1B." The designers claim that the Soyuz should be in all modifications, especially in a light one. Modern spacecraft are increasingly more technologically advanced and smaller, and launching such satellites with heavy rockets is unprofitable. "This is a project where there are virtually no side blocks, a rocket is a central block, but increased in size, all this makes it possible to launch light class vehicles into orbit. The uniqueness of the light Soyuz is that we successfully integrated it into existing launch facilities,” explains Sergei Tyulevin, First Deputy General Director, Chief Engineer of the Progress TsSKB. The light Soyuz will deliver satellites weighing up to three tons into space. First the start and start of flight tests is already at the beginning of next year.

Perhaps, by uttering tricky words without any explanation, rocket professionals (and those classified among them) see themselves as a separate intellectual caste. But what about an ordinary person who, being interested in rockets and space, tries to immediately master an article peppered with incomprehensible abbreviations? What is BOKZ, SOTR or DPK? What is “crumpled gas” and why did the rocket “go over the hill”, and the launch vehicle and the spacecraft - two completely different products - bear the same name “Soyuz”? By the way, BOKZ is not Albanian boxing, but block for determining star coordinates(in common parlance - a star tracker), SOTR is not a violent abbreviation of the expression “I’ll grind it into powder”, but thermal control system, and WPC is not a furniture “wood-polymer composite”, but the most rocket-propelled one (and not only) drain safety valve. But what to do if there are no transcripts in either the footnote or the text? This is a problem... And not so much the reader, but the “writer” of the article: they won’t read it a second time! To avoid this bitter fate, we have undertaken the modest task of compiling a short dictionary of rocket and space terms, abbreviations and names. Of course, it does not pretend to be complete, and in some places, to be strict in its formulation. But we hope it will help the reader interested in astronautics. And besides, the dictionary can be supplemented and clarified endlessly - after all, space is infinite!..

Apollo- an American program to land a man on the Moon, which also included test flights of astronauts on a three-seater spacecraft in low-Earth and lunar orbit in 1968-1972.

Ariane-5— the name of a European disposable heavy-class launch vehicle designed to launch payloads into low-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. From June 4, 1996 to May 4, 2017, it completed 92 missions, 88 of which were completely successful.

Atlas V- the name of a series of American disposable medium-class launch vehicles created by Lockheed Martin. From August 21, 2002 to April 18, 2017, 71 missions were completed, of which 70 were successful. It is used primarily for launching spacecraft on orders from American government departments.

ATV(Automated Transfer Vehicle) is the name of a European disposable automatic transport vehicle designed to supply the ISS with cargo and flew from 2008 to 2014 (five missions were completed).

BE-4(Blue Origin Engine) is a powerful propulsion liquid rocket engine with a thrust of 250 tf at sea level, running on oxygen and methane and developed since 2011 by Blue Origin for installation on promising launch vehicles Vulcan and New Glenn. Positioned as a replacement for the Russian RD-180 engine. The first comprehensive fire tests are scheduled for the first half of 2017.

CCP(Commercial Crew Program) is a modern public American commercial manned program conducted by NASA and facilitating access for private industrial firms to technologies for the study and development of outer space.

CNSA(China National Space Agency) is the English abbreviation of the government agency that coordinates work on the study and development of outer space in the PRC.

CSA(Canadian Space Agency) is a government agency that coordinates space exploration in Canada.

Cygnus- the name of an American disposable automatic transport ship created by Orbital to supply the ISS with supplies and cargo. From September 18, 2013 to April 18, 2017, eight missions were completed, seven of them were successful.

Delta IV- the name of a series of American disposable medium- and heavy-class launch vehicles created by Boeing as part of the EELV program. From November 20, 2002 to March 19, 2017, 35 missions were conducted, 34 of which were successful. Currently used exclusively for launching spacecraft on orders from American government departments.

Dragon- the name of a series of American partially reusable transport ships developed by the private company SpaceX under a contract with NASA under the CCP program. Capable of not only delivering cargo to the ISS, but also returning it back to Earth. From December 8, 2010 to February 19, 2017, 12 unmanned spacecraft were launched, 11 of them were successful. The start of flight testing of the manned version is scheduled for 2018.

Dream Chaser- the name of the American reusable transport orbital rocket plane, developed since 2004 by Sierra Nevada to supply orbital stations with supplies and cargo (and in the future, in a seven-seat version, for crew changes). The start of flight tests is scheduled for 2019.

EELV(Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle) is a program for the evolutionary development of expendable launch vehicles for use (primarily) in the interests of the US Department of Defense. As part of the program, which began in 1995, carriers of the Delta IV and Atlas V families were created; Since 2015, they have been joined by Falcon 9.

EVA(Extra-Vehicular Activity) is the English name for extra-vehicular activity (EVA) of astronauts (work in outer space or on the surface of the Moon).

FAA(Federal Aviation Administration) - The Federal Aviation Administration, which regulates legal issues of commercial space flights in the United States.

Falcon 9- the name of a series of American partially reusable medium-class carriers created by the private company SpaceX. From June 4, 2010 to May 1, 2017, 34 missile launches of three modifications were carried out, 31 of which were completely successful. Until recently, the Falcon 9 served both to launch unmanned Dragon cargo ships into orbit to resupply the ISS, and for commercial launches; is now included in the spacecraft launch program commissioned by American government departments.

Falcon Heavy is the name of an American partially reusable heavy-duty launch vehicle developed by SpaceX based on the Falcon-9 launch vehicle stages. The first flight is planned for autumn 2017.

Gemini - the name of the second American manned space program, during which astronauts on a two-seater spacecraft made near-Earth flights in 1965-1966.

H-2A (H-2B)- variants of a Japanese disposable medium-class launch vehicle designed to launch payloads into low-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. From August 29, 2001 to March 17, 2017, 33 launches of the H-2A variant were carried out (of which 32 were successful) and six launches of the H-2B (all successful).

HTV(H-2 Transfer Vehicle), also known as Kounotori, is the name of a Japanese automatic transport vehicle designed to supply the ISS with cargo and has been flying since September 10, 2009 (six missions completed, three remaining according to plan).

JAXA(Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) is an agency that coordinates space exploration work in Japan.

Mercury- the name of the first American manned space program, during which astronauts on a single-seat spacecraft made near-Earth flights in 1961-1963.

NASA(National Aeronautics and Space Administration) is a government agency that coordinates aviation and space exploration in the United States.

New Glenn is the name of a partially reusable heavy-duty launch vehicle being developed by Blue Origin for commercial launches and use in the lunar transport system. Announced in September 2016, the first launch is planned for 2020-2021.

Orion MPCV(Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle) is the name of multifunctional manned spacecraft developed by NASA as part of the Exploration program and intended for flights of astronauts to the ISS and beyond low Earth orbit. The start of flight tests is scheduled for 2019.

Skylab- the name of the first American space station, on which three expeditions of astronauts worked in 1973-1974.

SLS(Space Launch System) is the name of the American family of super-heavy launch vehicles developed by NASA as part of the Exploration program and designed to launch elements of space infrastructure (including manned Orion spacecraft) onto flight trajectories. The start of flight tests is scheduled for 2019.

SpaceShipOne(SS1) is the name of an experimental reusable suborbital rocket plane created by Scaled Composites, which became the first non-governmental manned vehicle to overcome the Karman Line and reach space. Theoretically, it was supposed to carry a crew of three people, but in fact it was controlled by one pilot.

SpaceShipTwo(SS2) is the name of a reusable multi-seat (two pilots and six passengers) suborbital rocket plane from Virgin Galactic, designed for short tourist trips into space.

Space Shuttle, otherwise STS (Space Transportation System) is a series of American reusable manned transport spacecraft, created by order of NASA and the Department of Defense under a state program and completed 135 missions into near-Earth space between 1981 and 2011.

Starliner (CST-100)- the name of an American partially reusable manned transport ship developed by Boeing under a contract with NASA under the CCP program. The start of flight tests is scheduled for 2018.

ULA(United Launch Alliance) is a joint venture created in 2006 by Lockheed Martin and Boeing to cost-effectively operate Delta IV and Atlas V launch vehicles.

Vega- the name of a European light-class launch vehicle, developed in international cooperation with the decisive participation of Italy (Avio company) for launching payloads into low-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. From February 13, 2012 to March 7, 2017, nine missions were completed (all were successful).

Vulcan- the name of a promising American rocket designed to replace the Delta IV and Atlas V carriers. It has been developed since 2014 by the United Launch Alliance ULA. The first launch is planned for 2019.

X-15- an American experimental rocket plane created by North American on behalf of NASA and the Department of Defense to study the conditions of flight at hypersonic speeds and atmospheric reentry of winged vehicles, evaluate new design solutions, heat-protective coatings and psychophysiological aspects of control in the upper atmosphere. Three rocket planes were built, which made 191 flights in 1959-1968, setting several world speed and altitude records (including an altitude of 107,906 m reached on August 22, 1963).

Ablation- the process of mass removal from the surface of a solid body by a flow of incoming gas, accompanied by the absorption of heat. It forms the basis of ablative thermal protection, protecting the structure from overheating.

"Angara"- the name of the Russian launch vehicle, as well as a family of disposable modular launch vehicles of light, medium and heavy classes, designed for launching payloads into low-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. The first launch of the Angara-1.2PP light rocket took place on July 9, 2014, the first launch of the Angara-A5 heavy carrier took place on December 23, 2014.

Apogee— the most distant point in the orbit of a satellite (natural or artificial) from the center of the Earth.

Aerodynamic quality— dimensionless quantity, the ratio of the lifting force of an aircraft to the drag force.

Ballistic trajectory- the path along which a body moves in the absence of aerodynamic forces acting on it.

Ballistic missile - an aircraft that, after turning off the engine and leaving the dense layers of the atmosphere, flies along a ballistic trajectory.

"East"- the name of the first Soviet single-seat manned spacecraft, on which cosmonauts made flights from 1961 to 1963. Also - the open name of a series of Soviet disposable light-class launch vehicles, created on the basis of the R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile and used from 1958 to 1991.

"Sunrise"- the name of the multi-seat modification of the Soviet manned spacecraft "Vostok", on which the cosmonauts made two flights in 1964-1965. Also - the open name of a series of Soviet disposable medium-class launch vehicles used between 1963 and 1974.

Gas rocket engine(gas nozzle) is a device that serves to convert the potential energy of a compressed working fluid (gas) into thrust.

Hybrid rocket engine(GRD) is a special case of a chemical jet engine; a device that uses the chemical energy of interaction of fuel components in different states of aggregation (for example, a liquid oxidizer and a solid fuel) to create thrust. The engines of the SpaceShipOne and SpaceShipTwo rocket planes are built on this principle.

Gnomon- an astronomical instrument in the form of a vertical stand, which allows one to determine the angular height of the sun in the sky, as well as the direction of the true meridian, by the shortest length of the shadow. A photognomon with a color calibration scale served to document samples of lunar soil collected during the Apollo missions.

ESA(European Space Agency) is an organization that coordinates the activities of European states in the study of outer space.

Liquid rocket engine(LPRE) - a special case of a chemical jet engine; a device that uses chemical energy from the interaction of liquid fuel components stored on board an aircraft to create thrust.

Capsule- one of the names of the wingless descent vehicle of artificial satellites and spacecraft.

Spacecraft— a general name for various technical devices designed to perform targeted tasks in outer space.

Space rocket complex(KRC) is a term that characterizes a set of functionally related elements (technical and launch complex of the cosmodrome, measuring equipment of the cosmodrome, ground control complex of the spacecraft, launch vehicle and upper stage), ensuring the launch of the spacecraft onto the target trajectory.

Karman Line- an internationally agreed upon conventional boundary of space, lying at an altitude of 100 km (62 miles) above sea level.

"World"- the name of the modular Soviet/Russian orbital space station, which flew in 1986-2001, hosting numerous Soviet (Russian) and international expeditions.

ISS(International Space Station) is the name of the manned complex, which was created in low-Earth orbit by the efforts of Russia, the USA, Europe, Japan and Canada to conduct scientific research related to the conditions of long-term human stay in outer space. English abbreviation ISS (International Space Station).

Multistage (composite) rocket- a device in which, as fuel is consumed, there is a sequential discharge of used and unnecessary structural elements (stages) for further flight.

Soft landing— contact of a spacecraft with the surface of a planet or other celestial body, in which the vertical speed allows for the safety of the structure and systems of the apparatus and/or comfortable conditions for the crew.

Orbital inclination- the angle between the orbital plane of a natural or artificial satellite and the equatorial plane of the body around which the satellite orbits.

Orbit- a trajectory (most often elliptical) along which one body (for example, a natural satellite or spacecraft) moves relative to the central body (Sun, Earth, Moon, etc.). To a first approximation, the Earth's orbit is characterized by such elements as inclination, perigee and apogee heights, and orbital period.

First escape velocity- the lowest speed that must be given to a body in the horizontal direction near the surface of the planet in order for it to enter a circular orbit. For Earth - approximately 7.9 km/s.

Overload— vector quantity, the ratio of the sum of thrust and/or aerodynamic force to the weight of the aircraft.

Perigee— the point of the satellite’s orbit closest to the center of the Earth.

Circulation period- the period of time during which the satellite makes a full revolution around the central body (Sun, Earth, Moon, etc.)

New generation manned transport ship (PTK NP) “Federation”- a reusable four-six-seater ship developed by the Rocket and Space Corporation Energia to provide access to space from Russian territory (from the Vostochny Cosmodrome), delivery of people and cargo to orbital stations, flights to polar and equatorial orbit, exploration of the Moon and landing on it . It is being created within the framework of FKP-2025, the start of flight tests is scheduled for 2021, the first manned flight with docking with the ISS should take place in 2023.

"Progress"- the name of a series of Soviet (Russian) unmanned automatic ships for delivering fuel, cargo and supplies to the Salyut, Mir and ISS space stations. From January 20, 1978 to February 22, 2017, 135 ships of various modifications were launched, of which 132 were successful.

"Proton-M"— the name of a Russian disposable heavy-class launch vehicle designed to launch payloads into low-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. Created on the basis of Proton-K; The first flight of this modification took place on April 7, 2001. Until June 9, 2016, 98 launches were completed, of which 9 were completely and 1 partially unsuccessful.

Acceleration block(RB), the closest Western equivalent in meaning is the “upper stage,” a launch vehicle stage designed to form the target trajectory of a spacecraft. Examples: Centaur (USA), Briz-M, Fregat, DM (Russia).

Launch vehicle- currently the only means of launching a payload (satellite, probe, spacecraft or automatic station) into outer space.

Super-heavy class launch vehicle(RN STK) is the code name of a Russian development project intended to create a means of launching elements of space infrastructure (including manned spacecraft) onto flight trajectories (to the Moon and Mars).

Various proposals for the creation of a super-heavy class carrier based on the modules of the Angara-A5V, Energia 1K and Soyuz-5 rockets. Graphics by V. Trouser

Solid fuel rocket engine(solid propellant motor) - a special case of a chemical jet engine; a device that uses chemical energy from the interaction of solid fuel components stored on board an aircraft to create thrust.

Rocketplane- a winged aircraft (aircraft) that uses a rocket engine for acceleration and/or flight.

RD-180- a powerful propulsion liquid rocket engine with a thrust of 390 tf at sea level, running on oxygen and kerosene. Created by the Russian NPO Energomash by order of the American company Pratt and Whitney for installation on carriers of the Atlas III and Atlas V family. Serially produced in Russia and supplied to the USA since 1999.

Roscosmos- the short name of the Federal Space Agency (from 2004 to 2015, from January 1, 2016 - the Roscosmos state corporation), a state organization that coordinates the study and development of outer space in Russia.

"Firework"- the name of a series of Soviet long-term orbital stations that flew in low-Earth orbit from 1971 to 1986, receiving Soviet crews and cosmonauts from the countries of the socialist community (Intercosmos program), France and India.

"Union"- the name of a family of Soviet (Russian) multi-seat manned spacecraft for flights in low-Earth orbit. From April 23, 1967 to May 14, 1981, 39 ships flew with crew on board. Also - the open name of a series of Soviet (Russian) disposable medium-class launch vehicles used to launch payloads into low-Earth orbits from 1966 to 1976.

"Soyuz-FG"- the name of the Russian disposable medium-class launch vehicle, which since 2001 has been delivering spacecraft - manned (Soyuz family) and automatic (Progress) - into low-Earth orbit.

"Soyuz-2"- the name of a family of modern Russian disposable light and medium-class launch vehicles, which since November 8, 2004 have been launching various payloads into low-Earth orbits and departure trajectories. In its variants, Soyuz-ST has been launched from October 21, 2011 from the European spaceport in Kourou in French Guiana.

"Soyuz T"- the name of the transport version of the Soviet manned Soyuz spacecraft, which from April 1978 to March 1986 made 15 manned flights to the Salyut and Mir orbital stations.

"Soyuz TM"- the name of a modified version of the Soviet (Russian) manned transport spacecraft Soyuz, which from May 1986 to November 2002 made 33 manned flights to the Mir orbital stations and the ISS.

"Soyuz TMA"— the name of the anthropometric modification of the Russian Soyuz transport ship, created to expand the permissible range of height and weight of crew members. From October 2002 to November 2011, he made 22 manned flights to the ISS.

"Soyuz TMA-M"— further modernization of the Russian transport spacecraft Soyuz TMA, which from October 2010 to March 2016 carried out 20 manned flights to the ISS.

"Soyuz MS"- the final version of the Russian Soyuz transport spacecraft, which made its first mission to the ISS on July 7, 2016.

Suborbital flight— movement along a ballistic trajectory with a short-term exit into outer space. In this case, the flight speed can be either less or more than the local orbital one (remember the American probe Pioneer-3, which had a speed higher than the first cosmic speed, but still fell to Earth).

"Tiangong"- the name of a series of Chinese orbital manned stations. The first (Tiangong-1 laboratory) was launched on September 29, 2011.

"Shenzhou"- the name of a series of modern Chinese three-seat manned spacecraft for flights in low-Earth orbit. From November 20, 1999 to October 16, 2016, 11 spacecraft were launched, 7 of them with astronauts on board.

Chemical jet engine- a device in which the energy of the chemical interaction of fuel components (oxidizer and fuel) is converted into the kinetic energy of a jet stream that creates thrust.

Electric rocket motor(EP) - a device in which, to create thrust, the working fluid (usually stored on board the aircraft) is accelerated using an external supply of electrical energy (heating and expansion in a jet nozzle or ionization and acceleration of charged particles in an electric (magnetic) field).

The ion electric rocket engine has low thrust, but high efficiency due to the high speed of exhaust of the working fluid

Emergency rescue system— a set of devices for rescuing the crew of a spacecraft in the event of a launch vehicle accident, i.e., when a situation arises in which launching onto the target trajectory is impossible.

Spacesuit- an individual sealed suit that provides conditions for the work and life of an astronaut in a rarefied atmosphere or in outer space. There are different types of rescue suits and extravehicular activity suits.

Descent (return) apparatus- part of a spacecraft intended for descent and landing on the surface of the Earth or other celestial body.

Search and rescue team specialists examine the descent module of the Chinese Chang'e-5-T1 probe, which returned to Earth after flying around the Moon. Photo by CNSA

Traction- the reactive force that sets in motion an aircraft on which a rocket engine is installed.

Federal space program(FKP) is the main document of the Russian Federation, defining the list of main tasks in the field of civil space activities and their financing. Compiled for a decade. The current FCP-2025 is valid from 2016 to 2025.

"Phoenix"— the name of the development work within the framework of FKP-2025 to create a medium-class launch vehicle for use as part of the Baiterek, Sea Launch and LV STK space rocket systems.

Characteristic speed (CV, ΔV)— a scalar quantity characterizing the change in the energy of an aircraft when using rocket engines. The physical meaning is the speed (measured in meters per second) that the device will acquire when moving in a straight line only under the influence of traction at a certain fuel consumption. It is used (including) to estimate the energy costs required to perform rocket-dynamic maneuvers (required CS), or the available energy determined by the on-board fuel or working fluid reserve (available CS).

Transporting the Energia launch vehicle with the Buran orbital spacecraft to the launch site

"Energy" - "Buran"- Soviet spacecraft with a super-heavy class launch vehicle and a reusable winged orbital ship. Developed since 1976 as a response to the American Space Shuttle system. In the period from May 1987 to November 1988, he made two flights (with a mass-size analogue of the payload and with an orbital vehicle, respectively). The program closed in 1993.

ASTP(experimental flight "Apollo" - "Soyuz") - a joint Soviet-American program, during which in 1975 the manned Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft carried out a mutual search, docking and a joint flight in low-Earth orbit. In the USA it is known as ASTP (Apollo-Soyuz Test Project).

On January 2, 1959, for the first time in history, a Soviet space rocket reached the second escape velocity required for interplanetary flights and launched the Luna-1 automatic interplanetary station onto the lunar trajectory. This event marked the beginning of the “moon race” between the two superpowers - the USSR and the USA.

"Luna-1"

On January 2, 1959, the USSR launched the Vostok-L launch vehicle, which launched the Luna-1 automatic interplanetary station onto the lunar trajectory. The AWS flew at a distance of 6 thousand km. from the lunar surface and entered a heliocentric orbit. The goal of the flight was for Luna 1 to reach the surface of the Moon. All onboard equipment worked correctly, but an error crept into the flight cyclogram, and the AMP did not reach the surface of the Moon. This did not affect the effectiveness of onboard experiments. During the flight of Luna-1, it was possible to register the Earth's outer radiation belt, measure the parameters of the solar wind for the first time, establish the absence of a magnetic field on the Moon, and conduct an experiment to create an artificial comet. In addition, Luna-1 became a spacecraft that managed to reach the second cosmic speed, overcame gravity and became an artificial satellite of the Sun.

"Pioneer-4"

On March 3, 1959, the American spacecraft Pioneer 4 was launched from the Cape Canaveral Cosmodrome, which was the first to fly around the Moon. A Geiger counter and a photoelectric sensor were installed on board for photographing the lunar surface. The spacecraft flew at a distance of 60 thousand kilometers from the Moon at a speed of 7,230 km/s. For 82 hours, Pioneer 4 transmitted data on the radiation situation to Earth: no radiation was detected in the lunar environs. Pioneer 4 became the first American spacecraft to overcome gravity.

"Luna-2"

On September 12, 1959, the automatic interplanetary station Luna-2 launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, which became the first station in the world to reach the surface of the Moon. AMK did not have its own propulsion system. The scientific equipment on Luna 2 included Geiger counters, scintillation counters, magnetometers and micrometeorite detectors. Luna 2 delivered a pennant depicting the coat of arms of the USSR to the lunar surface. A copy of this pennant N.S. Khrushchev presented it to US President Eisenhower. It is worth noting that the USSR demonstrated the Luna 2 model at various European exhibitions, and the CIA was able to gain unlimited access to the model to study possible characteristics.

"Luna-3"

On October 4, 1959, the Luna-3 spacecraft launched from Baikonur, the purpose of which was to study outer space and the Moon. During this flight, for the first time in history, photographs of the far side of the Moon were obtained. The mass of the Luna-3 apparatus is 278.5 kg. Telemetric, radio engineering and phototelemetric orientation systems were installed on board the spacecraft, which made it possible to navigate relative to the Moon and the Sun, a power supply system with solar panels and a complex of scientific equipment with a photo laboratory.

Luna 3 made 11 revolutions around the Earth, and then entered the Earth's atmosphere and ceased to exist. Despite the low quality of the images, the resulting photographs provided the USSR with priority in naming objects on the surface of the Moon. This is how the circuses and craters of Lobachevsky, Kurchatov, Hertz, Mendeleev, Popov, Sklodovskaya-Curie and the lunar sea of ​​Moscow appeared on the map of the Moon.

"Ranger 4"

On April 23, 1962, the American automatic interplanetary station Ranger 4 launched from Cape Canaveral. The spacecraft carried a 42.6 kg capsule containing a magnetic seismometer and a gamma-ray spectrometer. The Americans planned to drop the capsule in the Ocean of Storms area and conduct research for 30 days. But the on-board equipment failed, and Ranger 4 was unable to process the commands that came from Earth. The flight duration of the Ranger 4 is 63 hours and 57 minutes.

"Luna-4S"

On January 4, 1963, the Molniya launch vehicle launched the Luna-4C spacecraft into orbit, which was supposed to make a soft landing on the surface of the Moon for the first time in the history of space flights. But the launch towards the Moon did not happen for technical reasons, and on January 5, 1963, Luna-4C entered the dense layers of the atmosphere and ceased to exist.

Ranger-9

On March 21, 1965, the Americans launched Ranger 9, the purpose of which was to obtain detailed photographs of the lunar surface in the last minutes before a hard landing. The device was oriented in such a way that the central axis of the cameras completely coincided with the velocity vector. This was supposed to avoid “image blurring”.

17.5 minutes before the fall (the distance to the lunar surface was 2360 km), it was possible to obtain 5814 television images of the lunar surface. The work of Ranger 9 received the highest marks from the world scientific community.

"Luna-9"

On January 31, 1966, the Soviet Luna-9 spacecraft launched from Baikonur, which made the first soft landing on the Moon on February 3. The AMS landed on the Moon in the Ocean of Storms. There were 7 communication sessions with the station, the duration of which was more than 8 hours. During communication sessions, Luna 9 transmitted panoramic images of the lunar surface near the landing site.

"Apollo 11"

On July 16-24, 1969, the American manned spacecraft of the Apollo series took place. This flight is famous primarily for the fact that earthlings landed on the surface of a cosmic body for the first time in history. On July 20, 1969 at 20:17:39, the lunar module of the ship on board with crew commander Neil Armstrong and pilot Edwin Aldrin landed on the moon in the southwestern part of the Sea of ​​​​Tranquility. The astronauts made an exit to the lunar surface, which lasted 2 hours 31 minutes 40 seconds. Command module pilot Michael Collins was waiting for them in lunar orbit. The astronauts planted the US flag at the landing site. The Americans placed a set of scientific instruments on the lunar surface and collected 21.6 kg of lunar soil samples, which were delivered to Earth. It is known that after returning, the crew members and lunar samples underwent strict quarantine, which did not reveal any lunar microorganisms.

Apollo 11 led to the achievement of the goal set by US President John Kennedy - to land on the Moon, overtaking the USSR in the lunar race. It is worth noting that the fact that Americans landed on the surface of the Moon raises doubts among modern scientists.

"Lunokhod-1"

November 10, 1970 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome AMS Luna-17. On November 17, the AMS landed in the Sea of ​​Rains, and the world's first planetary rover, the Soviet remote-controlled self-propelled vehicle Lunokhod-1, which was intended for exploration of the Moon and worked on the Moon for 10.5 months (11 lunar days), slid onto the lunar soil.

During its operation, Lunokhod-1 covered 10,540 meters, moving at a speed of 2 km/h, and surveyed an area of ​​80 thousand square meters. He transmitted 211 lunar panoramas and 25 thousand photos to earth. During 157 sessions with the Earth, Lunokhod-1 received 24,820 radio commands and carried out a chemical analysis of the soil at 25 points.

On September 15, 1971, the resource of the isotope heat source was exhausted, and the temperature inside the sealed container of the lunar rover began to drop. On September 30, the device did not make contact, and on October 4, scientists stopped trying to contact it.

It is worth noting that the battle for the Moon continues today: space powers are developing the most incredible technologies, planning.