Russian lands in the middle of the 13th–15th centuries. Russian lands in the XIII-XV centuries and Russian lands in the 13th-15th centuries
Russian Lands and Golden Horde(mid 13th to late 15th centuries)
The formation and formation of the Golden Horde begins in 1224. The state was founded by the Mongol Khan Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, and was part of the Mongol Empire until 1266, after which it became an independent state, retaining only formal subordination to the Empire. The majority of the state's population were Polovtsy, Volga Bulgars, Mordovians, and Mari. In 1312, the Golden Horde became an Islamic state. In the 15th century, the single state split into several khanates, the main one among which was the Great Horde. The Great Horde existed until the mid-16th century, but other khanates collapsed much earlier.
The name “Golden Horde” was first used by the Russians after the fall of the state, in 1556 in one of the historical works. Before this, the state was designated differently in different chronicles.
Territories of the Golden Horde
The Mongol Empire, from which the Golden Horde emerged, occupied territories from the Danube to the Sea of Japan and from Novgorod to Southeast Asia. In 1224, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire between his sons, and one of the parts went to Jochi. A few years later, Jochi’s son Batu undertook several military campaigns and expanded the territory of his khanate to the West; the Lower Volga region became the new center. From that moment on, the Golden Horde began to constantly capture new territories. As a result, most of the modern Russia(except for the Far East, Siberia and the Far North), Kazakhstan, Ukraine, part of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.
In the 13th century, the Mongol Empire, which seized power in Rus' (Mongol-Tatar yoke), was on the verge of collapse and Rus' came under the rule of the Golden Horde. However, the Russian principalities were not ruled directly by the khans of the Golden Horde; the princes were only forced to pay tribute to the Golden Horde officials, and soon this function came under the control of the princes themselves. However, the Horde did not intend to lose the conquered territories, so its troops regularly carried out punitive campaigns against Rus' to keep the princes in obedience. Rus' remained subject to the Golden Horde almost until the collapse of the Horde.
Since the Golden Horde left the Mongol Empire, the descendants of Genghis Khan were at the head of the state. The territory of the Horde was divided into allotments (uluses), each of which had its own khan, but smaller uluses were subordinate to one main one, where the supreme khan ruled. The ulus division was initially unstable and the boundaries of the uluses were constantly changing.
As a result of the administrative-territorial reform at the beginning of the 14th century, the territories of the main uluses were allocated and secured, and the positions of ulus managers - ulusbeks - were introduced, to whom smaller officials - viziers - were subordinate. In addition to the khans and ulusbeks, there was a national assembly - kurultai, which was convened only in emergency cases.
The Golden Horde was a paramilitary state, so administrative and military positions were often combined. The most important positions were occupied by members of the ruling dynasty, who were related to the khan and owned lands; smaller administrative positions could be held by feudal lords mediocre, and the army was recruited from the people.
The capitals were:
Sarai-Batu (near Astrakhan). During the reign of Batu;
Saray-Berke (near Volgograd). From the first half of the 14th century.
In general, the Golden Horde was a multi-structured and multinational state, therefore, in addition to the capitals, there were several large centers in each region. The Horde also had trading colonies on the Sea of Azov.
Trade and economy of the Golden Horde
The Golden Horde was a trading state, actively engaged in buying and selling, and also had multiple trading colonies. The main goods were: fabrics, linen canvases, weapons, jewelry and other jewelry, furs, leather, honey, timber, grain, fish, caviar, olive oil. Trade routes to Europe, Central Asia, China and India began from the territories that belonged to the Golden Horde.
The Horde also received a significant part of its income from military campaigns (robbery), collection of tribute (yoke in Rus') and the conquest of new territories.
The end of the era of the Golden Horde
The Golden Horde consisted of several uluses, subordinate to the authority of the Supreme Khan. After the death of Khan Janibek in 1357, the first unrest began, caused by the absence of a single heir and the desire of the khans to compete for power. The struggle for power became the main reason for the further collapse of the Golden Horde.
In the 1360s, Khorezm separated from the state.
In 1362, Astrakhan separated, the lands on the Dnieper were captured by the Lithuanian prince.
In 1380, the Tatars were defeated by the Russians in the Battle of Kulikovo during an attempt to attack Rus'.
In 1380-1395, the unrest ceased and power was again subordinated to the Great Khan. During this period, successful Tatar campaigns against Moscow were made.
However, in the late 1380s, the Horde attempted to attack Tamerlane's territories, which were unsuccessful. Tamerlane defeated the horde's troops and ravaged the Volga cities. The Golden Horde received a blow, which marked the beginning of the collapse of the empire.
At the beginning of the 15th century, new khanates (Siberian, Kazan, Crimean and others) were formed from the Golden Horde. The khanates were ruled by the Great Horde, but the dependence of new territories on it gradually weakened, and the power of the Golden Horde over Russia also weakened.
In 1480, Rus' was finally freed from the oppression of the Mongol-Tatars.
At the beginning of the 16th century, the Great Horde, left without small khanates, ceased to exist.
The last khan of the Golden Horde was Kichi Muhammad.
About the lecturer
Chernikova Tatyana Vasilievna - Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of World and national history Moscow state institute international relations (MGIMO (U) Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia).
Lecture outline
1. The Mongol Empire and its conquests. Battle of Kalka.
2. Batya’s invasion of 1236-1242. Campaign against Rus' (to North-Eastern Rus' - 1237-1238, to Southern and South-Western Rus' 1239-1241).
3. The Golden Horde and Russian lands (subordinate to the Horde and independent of it).
4. Forms of dependence of the Russian lands on the Golden Horde - the Horde exit (tribute), the system of issuing labels for reigns.
5. The question of the role and assessment of Horde dependence in historical science.
6. Creation and development of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia, its struggle with the Crusaders and Horde.
7. The Great Reign of Vladimir is a vassal territory of the Golden Horde. Tver and Moscow. "Great Silence" Dmitry Donskoy. The beginning of the struggle for independence from the Horde.
Annotation
The lecture examines the period of Russian history from the beginning of the Mongol conquests, in particular the first meeting of the Russians with the Mongols on May 31, 1223 on Kalka, until the end of the 14th century.
Dan brief overview conquests of the Mongol Empire at the beginning of the 13th century. and the story of Batu’s invasion of the Volga Bulgaria (1236-1237), the Polovtsian Steppe (1238-1239), covers the campaign against the Ryazan, Vladimir-Suzdal principalities, in the southern borders of the Novgorod land, the outlying territories of the Smolensk and Chernigov regions in 1237-1238, Batu's campaign against the Chernigov-Seversk land, the Kiev, Pereyaslav and Galicia-Volyn principalities in 1239-1241, and finally the invasion of Poland, Hungary and some other countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe in 1241-1242.
It is indicated that not all Russian lands were invaded by the troops of Batu Khan and, as a result, not all became dependent on the Western ulus of the Mongol Empire - the Golden Horde (formerly the Jochi ulus). Western Rus' remained independent, which, on the basis of the fight against the crusaders and repelling possible Horde expansion, soon entered into a military-state alliance with the Lithuanian state, forming the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia. By the middle of the 14th century. this state had significant territory and military power. After the defeat in 1362 in the Battle of Blue Waters, the troops of the Grand Duke of Lithuania and Russia Olgerd Gediminovich of the Horde found themselves in the Lithuanian-Russian state. The state union of Lithuania, Western and Southern Rus', as well as the personal union of the Gediminids with the Kingdom of Poland made it possible to successfully resist not only the Horde expansion, but also the onslaught of the crusaders. The Battle of Grunwald in 1410 with the knights of the Teutonic Order finally stopped the crusading “Drang nach Osten” (Onslaught to the East).
In North-Eastern and North-Western Rus', from the 1240s to the conditional date of 1480 (standing on the Ugra), vassal dependence on the Golden Horde was established. In the southern Russian and southwestern Russian lands, this dependence lasted until 1362. Its forms were the payment of tribute, the so-called “Horde exit”, and the approval of khan’s labels of Russian princes on their tables.
The question of assessing the degree of dependence on the Horde and the role of this dependence in Russian history is the subject of scientific discussion. In world historiography and until recently in domestic historical science, the prevailing opinion was that dependence was an extremely negative and difficult phenomenon. This is where the tradition of calling the Golden Horde dependence comes from with the emotional term “Yoke.” Lately a number of domestic historians propose to use the more neutral term “dependence”. It is also worth considering that N.M. Karamzin and the Eurasians saw not only negative, but also positive aspects Mongol conquest, L.N. Gumilyov is generally inclined to see in the relations between dependent Rus' and the Golden Horde a mutually beneficial alliance aimed at opposing Western European socio-cultural, and in the North-West of Rus', territorial expansion.
The lecture provides an analysis of the state of affairs in the Grand Duchy of Vladimir, formed in the mid-13th-14th centuries. on the site of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, the struggle of the local leading political centers - Tver and Moscow. The policy of the first Moscow princes, especially Ivan I Kalita, who continued the line of the Grand Duke of Vladimir in 1252-1263. Alexander Nevsky’s search for a compromise with the Golden Horde khans led to the “Great Silence” (1328-1367), a period when the Horde’s punitive armies against Rus' ceased. This, in turn, served as a prerequisite for the accumulation of forces and means for Moscow to begin the struggle for independence, which was expressed in the policy of Dmitry Donskoy. The Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 was the first serious attempt to free ourselves from any obligations to the Horde; it marked the transformation of Moscow into the center of a real struggle for the liberation of North-Eastern Rus'.
Questions about the topic of the lecture
1. What were the conquests of the Mongol Empire during the time of its founder Genghis Khan?
2. When was the military-territorial expansion of the Empire resumed?
3. What campaigns and where were made by the khans of the Western ulus (Juchi ulus) Batu? What were their results?
4. How did Batu’s invasion affect various Russian lands?
5. What was the position of Western Rus' in the XIII-XIV centuries?
6. How can we explain the successes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia in the 16th century?
7. What was the Golden Horde like in the middle of the XIII-XIV centuries?
8. How was the dependence of the Russian lands on the Golden Horde expressed?
9. How is the role and significance of the Horde dependence assessed in historical science?
10. What processes took place in the social and political life of the Great Reign of Vladimir in the middle of the XIII-XIV centuries? What position did the princes, in particular Alexander Nevsky, take? Why?
11. What is characteristic of the policy of the first Moscow princes?
12. When and why does Moscow, as the center of the unification of the North-Eastern Russian lands, move from the line of cooperation with the Golden Horde khans to resistance to them?
Literature
Editions for schoolchildren
1. Stories from Russian chronicles of the XII-XIV centuries. M., 1968.
2. Stories from Russian chronicles of the 12th-14th centuries. Vol. 1-5. M., 2013. Issue. 6-8. M., 2014.
Readers
1. Reader on the history of Russia. Tutorial/ Compiled by: Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G. and others. M.: Prospekt, 2012.
2. Reader on the history of Russia. In 4 volumes. T.1: From ancient times to the 17th century / comp. I.V. Babich, V.N. Zakharov, I.E. Ukolova. - M.: MIROS - International Relations, 1994.
3. Ancient Rus' in the light of foreign sources: Reader. T.I-V. / ed. A.V. Podosinov. M., 2009.
Tutorials
1. History of Russia. Textbook in 3 volumes. M.: MGIMO, 2012: Chernikova T.V. Part 1: History of Russia from ancient times - until the era of Catherine II.
2. Kirillov V.V. History of Russia. M.: Yurayt, 2014.
3. Pavlenko N.I., Andreev I.L., Fedorov V.A. History of Russia from ancient times to 1861. Textbook for universities. M.: Yurayt, 2014.
Literature
1. Alexander Nevsky. Sovereign, diplomat, warrior. / Rep. ed. A.V. Torkunov. M., 2010.
2. Borisov N.S. Ivan Kalita M., 2005.
3. Vernadsky G.V. Mongols and Rus'. Tver, 1997.
4. Danilevsky I.N. Russian lands through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants (XII-XIV centuries): a course of lectures. M., 2001.
5. Danilevsky I.N. Alexander Nevsky: Paradoxes of historical memory // “Chain of Times”: problems of historical consciousness. M.: IVI RAS, 2005. P.119-132.
6. Dumin S.V. Another Rus' // History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, solutions. Essays on the history of Russia in the 10th - early 20th centuries. M., 1991. P.76-126.
7. Gorsky A.A. Rus': From Slavic settlement to the Muscovite kingdom. M., 2004.
8. Gorsky A.A. From lands to great reigns: “conceptions” of Russian princes of the second half of the 13th-15th centuries. M., 2010.
9. Gorsky A.A. Moscow and Horde. M., 2005.
10. Grekov B.D., Yakubovsky A.Yu. The Golden Horde and its fall. M.: Bogorodsky printer, 1998.
11. Gumilev L.N. Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe. M., 1992.
12. Gumilev L.N. In search of an imaginary kingdom. M., 1992.
13. Gumilev L.N. From Rus' to Russia. M., 1995.
14. Gumilev L.N. Black Legend (Historical and psychological study). M., 1994.
15.Kadyrbaev A.Sh. Poland and the Turkic-Mongolian peoples in the historical space. History and modernity, 2008, No. 1.
16. Kargalov V.V. Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus'. M., 1966.
17. Kargalov V.V. The end of the Horde yoke / Answer. ed. Dr. History Sciences V.I. Buganov. M., 1980.
18. Kargalov V.V. The liberation struggle of Rus' against the Mongol-Tatar yoke // “Questions of History”. 1969. No. 2-4.
19. Krivosheev Yu.V. Rus' and the Horde // Russia and the East. St. Petersburg, 2002. P.81-136.
20.Nasonov A.N. Mongols and Rus'. M.; L., 1940.
21. Pochekaev R.Yu. Kings of the Horde. Biographies of khans and rulers of the Golden Horde. St. Petersburg, 2010.
22. Medieval Rus'. Part I: Golden Horde, Crusaders, Other Rus'. Homeland. 2003. No. 11.
23. Medieval Rus'. Part II. Homeland. 2003. No. 12.
24. Fedoseev Yu.G. Rus' and the Golden Horde. M., 2006.
25. Froyanov I.Ya. Ancient Rus' of the 9th-13th centuries. Popular movements. Princely and veche power. M., 2012.
26. Shabuldo F.M. Lands of Southwestern Rus' as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
27. Chernyshov A. Essays on the history of the Tver principality. XIII-XV centuries Tver, 1996.
28. Erenzhen Khara-Davan. Genghis Khan as a commander and his legacy.
29. Charles Halperin. The Tatar Yoke and Tatar Oppression. Russia Mediaevalis, vol.5, 1984.
As a result of the Mongol invasions, the territory of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir
decreased, but it retained its influence among other principalities of North-Eastern Rus'
(Rostovsky, Pereyaslavsky, Yuryevsky, Starodubsky, Suzdal, Yaroslavsky). At
Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky (reigned 1252-63) developed a practice according to which
Only the Grand Dukes of Vladimir were invited to Novgorod. In Vladimir the Great
The principality did not develop dynastic rule. However, until the beginning of the 14th century. grand dukes
Vladimir tried to transfer part of the territory of the Grand Duchy to their sons.
Possessions of grand-ducal families (appanages) were created. The Mongol khans handed over to the Russians
princes labels on the Vladimir Grand Ducal Table. The Grand Dukes were responsible for collecting
Russian lands of the Horde tribute (exit). In the 13th-15th centuries. a category of servicemen was formed
princes who transferred to the Russian principalities from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Golden Horde
The Principality of Moscow was allocated to Daniil Alexandrovich according to Alexander’s will
Nevsky in 1263. Since the beginning of the 80s. 13th century Daniel began to play an active role in political
the struggle of the princes of North-Eastern Rus'. In the 14th century Moscow's rivalry intensified,
Tver, Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal, Ryazan great principalities. Unification Center
Russian lands and the formation of a single state became Moscow, around which it began
formation of the ethnic core of the Russian people. Prince of Moscow Yuri Danilovich in wrestling
for the Vladimir table he competed with the Prince of Tver Mikhail Yaroslavich. He married
sister of Khan Uzbek Konchak and in 1317-25 was the Grand Duke of Vladimir. Grand Duke
Moscow (from 1325) and Vladimir (from 1328) Ivan I Kalita created economic and
legal prerequisites for expanding the territory of the Moscow Grand Duchy.
Petra (1325). Under the Grand Duke of Moscow and Vladimir (from 1354) Ivan II the Red
spiritual and political influence Metropolitan Alexy. Grand Duke of Moscow
(from 1359) and Vladimir (from 1362, with interruptions) Dmitry Ivanovich (Donskoy) as a result
war with Tver (1368-75) concluded a peace treaty that limited independence
Tver Grand Duchy. Dmitry's relationship with the Grand Duke was difficult
Ryazan Oleg Ivanovich: long military and diplomatic confrontation
ended in 1385 with the conclusion of a peace treaty brokered by Sergius
Radonezh. Dmitry Ivanovich repelled the attacks of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd and
Horde people. The most important result of his resistance to the Golden Horde was the victory in Kulikovskaya
battle of 1380. Under Dmitry Donskoy, the expansion of the borders of the Great Moscow continued
principalities. He bequeathed the territory of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir to his son Vasily I as
his “patrimony” for the first time without the sanction of the Golden Horde.
Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily I (reigned 1389-1425) at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. led
fight with Novgorod for the Dvina land and tried to limit the sovereignty of the Novgorod
republics. In 1408 he paid a ransom of 3,000 rubles. Horde military leader Edigei,
devastated the territory of the Moscow Grand Duchy. Grand Duke of Moscow
Vasily II the Dark (ruled 1425-62) won the internecine war (1425-53) with
appanage princes Yuri Dmitrievich and his sons Vasily Kosy, Dmitry
Shemyaka and Dmitry the Red, which was carried out in the context of Horde raids and Lithuanian
expansion. He liquidated the Dmitrov, Galitsky, Serpukhov-Borovsky destinies,
retaining the Vereisko-Belozersky principality as part of the Moscow Grand Duchy,
annexed to Moscow the Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal Grand Duchy, part of the Yaroslavl and
other lands. He contributed to the establishment of the autocephalous church in Rus', led campaigns
to Novgorod (1441, 1456, 1460, etc.).
The unification of lands around the Moscow Grand Duchy took place in conditions
further development of the feudal mode of production. Secular and spiritual feudal lords
were interested in strengthening state power and protecting their possessions from
external danger and internal political conflicts. In the context of rising rural
farms in Rus' 14-15 centuries. the value of land holdings increased, the struggle for
land between its owners. In the 14th century, along with various terms denoting
which later applied to the bulk of farmers, excluding serfs. Princely
the authorities patronized monastic colonization - the formation of the Trinity-Sergius,
Kirillo-Belozersky, Ferapontov and other monasteries. At the disposal of the state
there were so-called black lands that the princes bestowed on their secular and ecclesiastical
feudal lords Significant land holdings were the personal property of the princes. At Ivan I
Kalita had more than 50 villages, Vasily II already had over 125 of them. The typical form
feudal land tenure in the 14th-15th centuries. there was a fiefdom. Along with patrimonial
conditional land tenure. From the 13th-14th centuries. nobles (mostly princely) were endowed with land, and
also had the opportunity to buy it. From the middle of the 14th century. there was a rise in cities
(Moscow, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, etc.). Trade and craft centers Ruza, Vereya, Borovsk,
Serpukhov and others turned into cities - military-strategic points and princely
residences. In the 14th-15th centuries. Moscow, Tver and other merchants participated in the international
trade with the Golden Horde, the Caspian countries, Italian trading posts of Crimea and
Black Sea region. The merchant corporation "Surozhan" arose in Moscow. Moscow merchants
"cloth makers" imported Western European cloth to Rus'. Mozhaisk trade developed,
Tver, Moscow, Kolomna and other merchants with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Novgorod
traded with the cities of the Baltic states, the Hanseatic League, etc. Russian 72 and culture 14 - 1st half
15th centuries developed under the influence of the ideas of unifying the country and fighting the Mongol-Tatar
yoke At the beginning of the 15th century. An all-Russian chronicle was created - the Trinity Chronicle. Feats
Russian warriors - participants in the Battle of Kulikovo 1380, were glorified in "Zadonshchina" and
"Tales of the Massacre of Mamayev." In the mid-70s. 15th century travel notes compiled
Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin (“Walking across Three Seas”). Towards outstanding achievements
Russian culture includes the painting of Andrei Rublev (about 1360-70 - about 1430) and
Theophanes the Greek (around 1340 - after 1405).
5.1. Mongol-Tatar invasion.
5.2. Mongol-Tatar yoke.
5.1. Carried out in 1237 - 1241. during three campaigns of the Mongol troops under the leadership of Batu Khan. As a result, most of the Russian principalities suffered terrible devastation (with the exception of Polotsk and, partially, Novgorod land).
The reasons for the defeat of Rus': feudal fragmentation, which prevented the unification of the military efforts of the Russian principalities; the overwhelming power of the military potential of the Mongols (number of troops, advanced siege equipment).
Consequences of the invasion:
A) demographic crisis;
B) the decline of crafts and trade;
C) slowing down the process of feudalization (the feudal class for the most part died in battle);
D) moving the political center of Russian lands from Kyiv to Vladimir;
D) separation of North-Eastern Rus' from South-Western Russia, which during the 13th – 15th centuries was included in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania;
E) loss of political independence by the Russian principalities.
5.2. The Mongol-Tatar yoke (1243 - 1480) is understood as a form of political and economic dependence of Rus' on the Golden Horde, the manifestation of which was, firstly, the assignment by the Horde khans of the right to vest power in Russian princes (by distributing shortcuts), secondly, the annual payment by Russia (by all categories of the population, except the clergy) of the established tribute - Horde exit, thirdly, the use of Russian troops in the military operations of the Mongols.
To impose tribute on the Russian population (in the amount of half a hryvnia of silver - a ruble), in the 1250s. its census was carried out - Number. The collection of tribute was carried out Baskakami or Arab merchant-farmers, whose arbitrariness caused uprisings in Russian cities in 1262. From that time on, the collection of tribute and its delivery to the Horde was carried out by the Russian princes, and after the Tver uprising of 1327 - Grand Duke Vladimirsky
Individual pockets of resistance to the Mongols on the part of Russian princes took place in the 13th century. From the second half of the 14th century, during the reign of the Moscow prince Dmitry Donskoy (1359 - 1389), North-Eastern Rus', led by Moscow, taking advantage of the political crisis in the Horde, entered into open confrontation with it, winning the general Battle of Kulikovo with the troops of Mamaia (1380). However, the invasion of Tokhtamysh in 1382 did not allow Dmitry Donskoy to completely eliminate the yoke. In the 15th century, the Golden Horde entered the stage of collapse. On its ruins arose the Great Horde, the Crimean, Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian khanates. The attempt of the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat to restore the former dominance of the Mongols over the united Russia ended in the defeat of the Mongols in r. Eel from the troops of Ivan III in 1480, which is considered the date of the end of the yoke of the Mongol-Tatars.
6. Specifics of the formation of a unified Russian state (XIV - first half of the 15th century).
6.1. Prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands.
6.2. Reasons for the rise of Moscow. Her struggle with Tver for the Grand Duke's label. The unification policy of the Moscow princes.
6.3. Feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century.
6.1. The following prerequisites are distinguished:
A) the need to unite the efforts of the principalities to eliminate the Mongol yoke;
B) strengthening trade ties between Russian lands;
C) a common legal, cultural and religious space.
D) the growth of the feudal class of principalities, which encouraged strong princes to absorb the territories of weak neighboring principalities for the purpose of new patrimonial distributions.
6.2. Historians call the reasons for the rise of the Moscow Principality:
A) profitability geographical position: located in the depths of North-Eastern Rus', at the intersection of trade routes, the principality was quite reliably protected by forests and border principalities from Tatar raids, which contributed to the influx of population into this territory from the ravaged outskirts and the rapid development of the economy. High population density, a developed economy, and active trade contributed to the wealth of local princes, the influx of feudal lords into their service, and, consequently, the growth of the military power of the principality;
B) the flexible policy of the Moscow princes towards the Mongols: an alliance with the Mongols under Ivan Kalita in the first half of the 14th century (suppression of the anti-Horde Tver uprising of 1327.) ensured Moscow victory in the struggle for the label for the Great Reign of Vladimir over Tver Principality, obtaining the right to collect tribute on the territory of North-Eastern Rus' - a new source of princely income; provided Rus' with a peaceful respite to mobilize forces against the invaders. It was from the time of Ivan I Kalita (1325 - 1340) that the Moscow princes, through purchase and capture began the systematic expansion of their own territory, eliminating most of the principalities of North-Eastern Rus' by the middle of the 15th century. To reign Dmitry Donskoy, after Tver’s refusal to fight for the label and victory in Battle of Kulikovo 1380, Moscow has become the recognized center of the emerging Russian state;
C) Support for the Moscow princes from the Russian Orthodox Church: in 1325, Metropolitan Peter moved his residence from Vladimir to Moscow, turning it into the religious center of Rus'. In 1362, thanks to Metropolitan Alexy I, the Grand Duke's label was again transferred to the Moscow princes.
6.3. Feudal war is a natural phenomenon that precedes the formation of medieval centralized monarchies. The cause of the feudal war in Russia 1433 - 1453. between the descendants of Dmitry Donskoy - the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II the Dark and his uncle the Galician prince Yuri Dmitrievich(later by his sons Vasily Kosy And Dmitry Shemyaka) for the right to the great reign of Moscow there was a clash between two principles of succession to the throne - the ancient ladder (by seniority in the family) and the new dynastic - from father to son. During the many years of struggle for power, Vasily II repeatedly suffered defeats from his more talented relatives, lost the Moscow table and still managed to retain power, thanks to the support of the Moscow boyars and the urban lower classes, who saw the appanage princes as a source of feudal unrest. With the end of the feudal war, the process of unification of Russian lands entered its final phase. The power of the Moscow princes acquires a despotic character.
7. Formation of a unified Russian state (late 15th – early 16th centuries)
7.1. Completion of the process of unification of North-Eastern Rus' around Moscow during the reign of Ivan III and Vasily III.
7.2. The beginning of the struggle for Western Russian lands with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
7.3. Formation of a system of central and local public administration. Localism. Law code 1497
7.1. During the reign of the great Moscow princes Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and Vasily III (1505 - 1533) the Yaroslavl, Rostov, Tver and Ryazan principalities, the Novgorod and Pskov republics were annexed to Moscow, which meant the end of the unification process in North-Eastern Rus' and the folding united Russian state.
7.2. Simultaneously with the liquidation of independent principalities in North-Eastern Rus', the great Moscow princes, from the end of the 15th century, began to solve the problem of incorporating into their state all the former territories of the Old Russian state, the main part of which by that time had been captured by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. During the 5 Russian-Lithuanian wars, Ivan III and Vasily III managed to annex the principalities of the river basin to the Moscow state. Oka, Chernigov, Seversk and Smolensk lands.
7.3. At the turn of the 15th – 16th centuries, the Russian state was autocratic monarchy with an exceptionally powerful grand ducal power, which had supreme powers in the sphere of legislation, court and administration. The power of the Grand Duke was not absolute due to the incompleteness of the process of centralization of government and the presence of an aristocratic authority - Boyar Duma, the composition of which did not depend solely on the will of the prince and together with which the supreme control of the state was carried out. At the end of the 15th century, the central administrative apparatus was represented by two institutions: Palace(or the Great Palace) and Treasury. The first managed the personal lands of the Grand Duke, the second combined the functions of the financial, foreign policy department and the state chancellery. It was the Treasury that became the base order system management, which replaced in the 16th century palace-patrimonial. As new territories were annexed to the Moscow state, local palaces were formed to administer them: Smolensky, Siberian, Kazan.
The local administration of the Russian state at the turn of the 15th – 16th centuries was represented by the grand ducal governors in districts and volostels in volosts who had financial, police and judicial functions. These officials were feeders, i.e. were maintained at the expense of the local population, receiving the required portion of the collected taxes and court fees.
The main principle civil service from the end of the 15th century it became localism- filling public positions not on the basis of the professional qualities and merits of the serving person, but on the basis of the nobility of the family and the service of the ancestors. Localism was a hindrance in many matters, and in 1550, under Ivan IV, its use in the army was limited.
In 1497, the first set of laws of a single state was compiled - Code of Law of Ivan III, based on a monument of criminal law. The code of law established the St. George's Day rule, the death penalty, regulated legal proceedings, establishing, as a barrier to judicial arbitrariness, the mandatory participation of representatives of the population - “the best people” - in the viceroyal court.
Chapter 4
Self-test questions
1. Where was the ancestral home of the ancient Slavs? What is the origin (ethnogenesis) of the Slavic peoples?
2. What factors influenced the development of the ancient Slavs?
3. Tell us about economic activity And social order ancient Slavs.
4. What determined the formation ancient Russian state?
5. What were the main activities of the first Kyiv princes?
6. What are the features of the formation of feudalism in Kievan Rus?
7. Highlight the general and special in the political and socio-economic development of North-Eastern, North-Western and South-Western Rus'.
The collapse of Kievan Rus marked the beginning of feudal fragmentation. Each of the isolated lands (their number was not constant) turned into an independent public education with its complex internal structure. Large principalities were divided into smaller appanage principalities.
However, the new territorial and political system that had developed in Rus' was disrupted in the 13th century as a result of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar hordes. For more than 240 years, Rus' found itself under the Mongol-Tatar (Golden Horde) yoke. The devastating campaigns against North-Eastern and Southern Rus' in 1237–1238 and 1239–1241 forced the Russian princes to recognize the supreme power of the khan. Political and economic oppression over Russia had its own characteristics. Nomads with huge herds could not live either in Russian cities or in Russian forests. They returned to the open steppes, so the national order of princely dominion was preserved in Rus'. The Russian lands were forced to pay tribute to the Horde, and the princes were forced to receive confirmation of their rights to their throne at the khan’s headquarters. Without replacing the power of the Russian princes, the khan's power was imposed on it from above.
In the policy of the Russian princes in relation to the conquerors, two lines are visible: 1) the desire for immediate liberation through armed struggle; 2) maintaining peaceful relations with the Golden Horde, strengthening one’s own power, and gradually accumulating forces.
The second line of behavior was dictated primarily by the fact that, not having sufficient strength to free themselves from Horde dependence, the princes were looking for an opportunity for the survival of the Slavs. In addition, it was necessary to take into account the danger threatening Rus' not only from the east, but also from the north-west, from the knightly orders. This line was most clearly manifested in the actions of Alexander Nevsky, who defeated the Swedish knights (1240) and the crusaders of the Livonian Order (1242), but went to bow to the Golden Horde khan.
Under these conditions, the fate of the lands that once made up Kievan Rus unfolded differently. In the 14th–15th centuries, the southwestern and western Russian principalities gradually lost their sovereignty and merged with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland. North-Eastern Rus' (Vladimir-Suzdal Principality) became the center of the formation of a future unified state with its capital in Moscow. (The reasons for this role of North-Eastern Rus' are traditionally explained by the power and authority acquired by the Vladimir-Suzdal principality in the pre-Mongol period as a result of the activities of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest).
As a result of the political separation of parts of the once unified state, the Old Russian nationality ceased to exist and the Russian (Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities began to take shape.
The Mongol invasion and the establishment of the Mongol-Tatar yoke resulted in dire consequences for Rus'. A serious blow was dealt to the country's economy (cities were especially affected), and the political fragmentation and disunity of Russian lands intensified. But most importantly, the Golden Horde yoke changed the pace and nature of the development of Russian lands and predetermined the enormous influence of the eastern factor on all aspects of society. The process of feudalization slowed down, and state feudalism was conserved. Within the framework of the emerging system of feudal hierarchy, relations of citizenship began to be established. Princely power grew stronger and tougher, for the Russian princes became acquainted with power that required unconditional obedience. The deepening of these trends, which determined both the main features and social order The future of the Moscow state was facilitated by the isolation of North-Eastern Rus' from Western Europe, which was a consequence of Mongol rule.
Fragmented into a number of independent principalities, North-Eastern Rus' could not achieve independence from the Horde, but was in dire need of its own statehood, so neither the Mongol yoke nor internal contradictions could stop the unifying tendencies. Parallel processes of unification of Russian lands around Moscow and political centralization - strengthening of central power - begin.
The rise of Moscow, one of the numerous appanage principalities of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, was also facilitated by profitable geographical location, and the purposeful policy of the Moscow princes (far from impeccable from a moral point of view, but indicating the ability to take advantage of circumstances), and the support of the Russian Orthodox Church, whose political ideals corresponded to the gathering of lands around Moscow.
The Russian lands united around Moscow were aware of their cultural and religious community, but most importantly, they were connected with it by common foreign policy interests and, first of all, by the desire to gain independence. However, the process of centralization, which began under conditions of immature socio-economic prerequisites, further strengthened the trends generated by Mongol-Tatar domination.
The beginning of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow was preceded by a fierce struggle for leadership between the Moscow and Tver appanage principalities, from which Moscow emerged victorious. A major role in this was played by the actions of the Moscow prince Ivan Kalita (1325–1340), who suppressed the anti-Horde popular uprising in Tver in 1327 with the help of the Tatars. As a result, Ivan Kalita received the grand-ducal throne, which in the future, as a rule, was occupied by Moscow princes. Collecting tribute and sending it to the Horde also became the prerogative of the Moscow princes. (The assessment of Ivan Kalita’s activities in historical literature is ambiguous and ranges from recognizing its objective necessity in the interests of centralizing the state to accusing him of betraying the people’s interests and strengthening personal power “at any cost” to the detriment of the country’s liberation from Mongol rule.) The defeat of the rival ensured Moscow political supremacy, allowed the transition to the state unification of Russian lands and the organization of a nationwide struggle against the Horde yoke.
In the mid-70s of the 14th century, Moscow Prince Dmitry Donskoy (1359–1389) began an open struggle with the Golden Horde and in 1380 won a brilliant victory over the Mongol-Tatar army of Khan Mamai on the Kulikovo Field. This victory further strengthened the authority of Moscow as a center of unification in the struggle for liberation from external dependence, and turned Moscow into the de facto capital of North-Eastern Rus'. Despite all efforts, the Horde was unable to restore its former power over Russia. Prince Dmitry Donskoy for the first time transferred the Grand Duchy of Vladimir to his son as his fatherland, without recognizing the right of the Horde khans to dispose of it.
The son of Dmitry Donskoy, Vasily I (1389–1425), also managed to strengthen the position of the Moscow principality as the center of Russian lands. He eliminated the independence of some feudal centers ( Nizhny Novgorod, Murom), constrained the independence of others (Ryazan, Tver), made a number of territorial acquisitions at the expense of third parties (Novgorod land), secured the right in matters foreign policy(relations with the Horde and Lithuania) to speak on behalf of all North-Eastern Rus'.
The fierce feudal war that began after the death of Vasily I temporarily slowed down the process of unification of Russian lands, but confirmed its necessity. By the middle of the 15th century, as a result of the actions of Vasily II the Dark (1425–1462) to strengthen the grand ducal power, undertaken after the end of the feudal war, conditions were created for the completion of the unification of Russian lands and the creation of a single state.
The completion of the unification process occurred at the end of the 15th – beginning of the 16th centuries and is associated with the decisive actions of Ivan III (1462–1505). During his reign, the Yaroslavl and Rostov principalities were included in the emerging unified state, the Tver principality was conquered, and Novgorod was conquered (the Novgorod lands were transferred to the Moscow state). The expansion of the territory of the state was accompanied by the concentration of power in the hands of the sovereign (power acquired an autocratic character), the formation of a centralized state apparatus, and the creation of all-Russian legislation (Code of Code of 1497). Having united almost all of North-Eastern Rus', Ivan III began to be called the sovereign of all Rus'.
In parallel with the unification of Russian lands, the task of eliminating the Horde yoke was solved. In 1480 it was finally overthrown.
During this period, the main directions and strategic goals of the foreign policy of Muscovite Rus' were determined: in the east - an attack on the khanates formed as a result of the collapse of the Golden Horde; in the west and north-west - the fight against Lithuania and the Livonian Order and the return of the East Slavic lands that were part of Kievan Rus. (The implementation of this policy by Ivan III and his successors throughout the 15th century led to the creation of a Russian state that was huge in scale and multinational in character.)
The policies of Ivan III were continued by his son Vasily III(1505–1533). During his reign, the process of unification of Russian lands that were not part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was completed. The formation of all-Russian statehood and the growth of the international prestige of Rus' led to the emergence of official political ideas about the Russian state as the legitimate successor of the world's largest empires - the Roman and Byzantine.
At the turn of the 15th–16th centuries, when the grand ducal government needed a large number of “service people,” the system of local land ownership, which originated in the 14th century, strengthened. Ivan III and Vasily III distributed plots of land inhabited by peasants for conditional ownership only for the period of service (the estate was not inherited). The spread of conditional land ownership increased the growth of the stratum of the nobility.
From the end of the 15th century, estates began to take shape in Rus': the feudal aristocracy, sitting in the Boyar Duma (an advisory body under the Tsar), the nobility and clergy, the peasantry and townspeople.
The constant military danger from the west and east accelerated the unification of Russian lands. However, real socio-economic prerequisites for this have not yet been created. The process of political unification overtook the process of strengthening the central government, as a result of which the remnants of feudal decentralization remained in the country for a long time. But many appanage princes and a significant part of the boyars linked their fate with a single state. At the same time, the landowning nobility sought to actively participate in government and limit the sovereign's power. Therefore, forced centralization was most often based on military force and military methods of management. This forced the state to take a mobilization path of development, the loss of polycentricity in favor of growing centralism with despotic features of the power of the Moscow sovereigns.