Martin Frobisher - unusual stories from history. Rules for growing Canadian park rose Martin Frobisher in the garden Severe Frobisher

Now it’s time for the long-promised stories about sea adventures and naturalists.

Today our heroes are Her Majesty's illustrious naval privateers.
Adventurers and Knights of Fortune (sic! without quotes!). In honor of them, the scum of Teach’s time called themselves “gentlemen of Fortune”... Well, yes, of course... those are still gentlemen. Not like Raleigh, Drake or the same Gilbert...

In a word, I present brilliant bikes from Entrecote.
There, in the Lot of Mogultai, you can read many masterfully retold biographies and “lives”. There are also legends about “Sea Hawks”. Of course, for the sake of a nice word, you can see a lot of inaccuracies there. But for immersion in the spirit of the era this does not matter.
But it is important and necessary to make references to the names mentioned. Which is what I'll do.
So, WELCOME TO THE REAL WORLD OF BRITISH PRIVATEERS -- ELIZABETHAN SEA HAWKS!

Homeland of Dragons
*
This was the time when the admiral of a pirate squadron could turn away from a burning Spanish frigate and say to the people on the bridge: “Sic transit gloria mundi.”
This was the time when Her Majesty could scare off an offending maid of honor with a nine-point sailor's curse. People around would understand both.

During the battle with the Invincible Armada, when Hawkins's small light ship rushed along the crest of the wave, and the Spanish flagship sagged at its foot, Hawkins leaned over the side and, seeing the commander of the invasion, the Duke of Medina-Sidonia, on the deck of the "Spaniard", shouted in his face in the language the ancient Romans, his entire family tree - as Hawkins imagined it.
Hawkins' Spanish was rather weak, and the Duke would hardly have been able to appreciate the salt of the address if it had been made in English. But they both spoke excellent Latin.

Those who sank the Invincible Armada were very fond of talking and acting beautifully.
They turned fate into a performance. Enriched the classics personal experience.
With the Lord God were in difficult relationships. A man standing at the helm, with a nod or a wave of his hand, determining the fate of another person, ship or state, can, of course, consider himself an instrument of the Lord - if he needs justification. These people, as a rule, did not need excuses.

In England at that time, just like in the theater, anything was possible. You could fly up to the ceiling - you just had to come up with wings. It was possible to do politics - the losers climbed to the scaffold, the winners - a step closer to the throne. It was possible to go to sea - the losers burned and drowned, the winners were made admirals. It was possible to write poetry - losers drowned in Lethe, winners became Spencers and Marlowes, in as a last resort, Shakespeare.
Posthumous glory was guaranteed by a dagger in the eye.

The French ambassador, Monsieur de Mornay, who arrived in London shortly after, wrote to his master in some bewilderment that the reaction of English society was completely unambiguous:
“- God, what a fool! Well, who is organizing a rebellion like that..."
and that some nobles, in a private conversation, of course, added:
“If I had taken on this matter, everything would have ended completely differently,” which in no way meant disloyalty to Her Majesty.
In any other country, a defeated rebel, at least for a while, became the local incarnation of the devil. In England he was just a defeated rebel, well, even a fool... sometimes.

And then there was the city of London. A damp, gray stone city, where it is difficult for two people to pass each other on the street, and the air, in color and taste, resembles the famous ginger beer. It’s so easy to leave this city behind, to sail off to the southern seas, to the next intrigue, poetry or science, to return and breathe once again the air of the color and taste of ginger beer.

Sir Francis Drake
That time has passed. England is no longer the home of dragons.
Francis Drake, who was not yet a sir at that time, and also knew little Spanish, at some negotiations about the ransom, changed his surname to Spanish phonetics like this: “el draco,” which meant “dragon.”
Through the efforts of Sir Francis and his colleagues, this name first became a proper name, and then again a common noun.
Very similar to the English:
in the coat of arms - St. George, the battle cry: “White Dragon!”, and in case of trouble, a candle is lit for both.

Just ten years ago, in any port tavern, one could hear a song about how the old trough with the proud name “Falcon” returned to the London port in three people - together with the Spanish “merchant” and the frigate of the Spanish Royal Navy, which decided to protect the “merchant”.
As the beggar said to the landlord: “Unleash your dog on me, sir, I’ll eat it.”

This song is no longer sung [actually, after 1601]...
Once harmless, she now offends too many. And the point here is not in the author of the text, who, firstly, is completely trustworthy, and secondly, has been dead for a long time, but in the author of the fact, the captain of the old trough, who is now sleeping in a cell in the White Tower.
In a room under the very roof, where from the window there is a view of the dawn, the Thames and the clouds, and as for the accusation of treason, it is completely true. [???]

***
By the way, it was Drake and his cousin Hawkins who in 1590 founded a hospital and boarding house for elderly and disabled sailors (veterans of the battle with the Armada). Since 1594 - “the Hospital of Sir John Hawkins, Knight, in Chatham.”

* Protohawk or how it all began

Sir John Hawkins
As Dumas said, “great events have small reasons.” The naval war between England and Spain began due to the greed of the Spanish tax department, the counter greed and promiscuity of an English merchant, and the dishonesty of two Spanish aristocrats.

And it was like this.
Philip II, wanting to replenish the treasury, introduced a tax on the purchase of a license to import slaves into the New World. The tax was deadly. Slave prices soared tenfold. Slave traders began to go out of business, and the colonies began to suffocate without workers. And then one of the governors on the coast came up with a bright idea - to connect a third party. And the trade channels rang that a reliable person with contacts in Africa was needed to engage in smuggling.
After some time, the bell reached the Hawkins trading house. And John Hawkins with a small flotilla went to the shores of Sierra Leone. He didn’t buy slaves there - why would he? - but simply robbed a Portuguese slave trading post for all live goods. And he brought him to the New World.
He entered the harbor of Santo Domingo, pointed his guns at the city - and forced the governor to buy slaves from him at a price three times lower than the market price. And he sailed away peacefully, because for some reason the local squadron was chasing rumors about Dutch pirates three hundred miles from the base.
And everyone is happy - except the Portuguese, of course, and the slaves - but who will ask those?

With his second move, Hawkins solved the personnel problems of Rio del Hacha, but with the third it didn’t work out well.
He went around several islands - and off the coast of Cuba he was caught in a hurricane, which blew him off course and severely damaged his ships. It was urgently necessary to repair it, because the flagship “Jesus of Lübeck”, bought by Henry VIII, rented from the crown and having actually served its purpose for a long time, it is not at all clear how it stayed on the water.

carrack Jesus of Lübeck (1546)
And Hawkins moved to the nearest harbor - San Juan de Ulloa.
And there they were just waiting for the arrival of a convoy with the new Viceroy of Mexico on board. Hawkins was mistaken for this convoy and was allowed in without hindrance. We must give Hawkins his due - he did not abuse the gullibility of the local authorities, but simply anchored and began to repair - and even paid the port authorities for the materials with part of his goods.

And everything would be fine, but on September 16, a Spanish convoy, delayed due to that very storm, approached San Juan de Ulloa under the command of Admiral Francisco de Luyan and indeed with Viceroy Don Martin Hernandez on board.
And Hawkins has already dug in, he has batteries on the cape. It is possible to fight back, especially since a storm is approaching from the north. But there is no war between England and Spain - how will the queen look at the unprovoked destruction of the Spanish squadron along with the viceroy?

The Spaniards have the same picture - the storm is close, other harbors are still to be reached, and breaking through the Hawkins fire is an expensive pleasure, and it is not known whether it will work. So, the parties quietly converge and decide that Hawkins is a representative of a friendly power who has entered the harbor on his own business. The Spaniards give him the appropriate document - and peacefully walk into the harbor past the silent batteries.

But hidalgos, as we know, are masters of their word. And no one is going to keep the promise given to some English bastard. De Luyan slowly sends to Vera Cruz for soldiers, the Viceroy leaves for Mexico on the first pinnace (and these English fools did not even think of taking a hostage) - and on the 24th the Spaniards attacked the batteries, captured them - and opened fire from the shore and from ships at Hawkins ships in the harbor.

It must be said that Luyan was the same sailor as the hidalgo - with a threefold superiority in ships and a fivefold superiority in people, he still missed two ships - Hawkins on the Minion and his distant relative Drake on the Judith broke through and left.
[see: article on the Battle of San Juan de Ulloa (1568)]
In England, this story caused a huge scandal.
Moreover, the cause of the scandal was not the substance, but the circumstances of the case - if de Luyan Hawkins had been caught smuggling or something else and the entire squadron had been sunk in this regard, English public opinion would not have turned an ear.
But the word given and broken without hesitation, and the nature of the charges brought against Hawkins (see below), sent the British into a frenzy. When it became clear that most of the English prisoners were sent to the galleys or forced to build breakwaters, the Privy Council also became agitated - and just then a successful storm brought several Spanish transports into the Southampton harbor, on board of which, among other things, there were salaries for Alba’s troops in the Netherlands.
[These events, in particular, were narrated in his old age by Hawkins’ former gunner, Job Hartop, who returned years later from the Spanish galleys...]

Elizabeth thought and thought, and confiscated these ships as compensation for “Jesus from Lübeck.” As a result, the temperature of Anglo-Spanish relations dropped another degree, and Alba was left without money and, in order to pay his mercenaries, introduced the famous “tenth penny” tax (one tenth of the sale of any product) in the occupied territories, which finally threw the large trading cities into the arms gyosov.

Yes, and Hawkins was an innocent victim and everyone's favorite for about a week, until it became clear what he was actually smuggling. Here public opinion turned its back on him, the queen declared that it was “dreadful dastarly deed truly deserving of heavenly retribution” - and Hawkins’ head was saved only by Philip’s insistent demands that it be cut off.
Or rather, not even demands, but accusations.
Philip, with his characteristic intelligence and tact, charged Hawkins not with the slave trade (in Spain it was completely legal), not with smuggling (which the British would have understood), not with armed blackmail, of which Hawkins was guilty at least formally, but with the fact of trading with colonies in the New World - to which, as you know, only subjects of His Catholic Majesty, and also subjects of the King of Portugal, have the right.

So, any measures towards Hawkins would look like agreement with this point - and Her Majesty’s Government could not afford this. He simply fell into deep disgrace, from which he emerged when he helped Walsingham uncover the Ridolfi plot.

Hawkins came to his senses, took up privateering, succeeded in this field, commanded part of the fleet in the Armada and became Lord of the Admiralty. But those slaves were remembered to him until the end of his days.

And his younger cousin Francis [properly, Drake], who traded not in slaves, but in spices, had a good look at the Spanish Maine and also decided that there were more profitable occupations, and most importantly, much quieter than trade.
And that same year he asked the queen for a marque patent.
And - since relations with Escorial had completely deteriorated - he received it...

* Little "Revenge"

Sir Richard Grenville
Year 1591.
There are seven ships in the strait between the Flores Islands - six ships of the squadron of Howard, Second Lord of the Admiralty, and the Revenge of Sir Richard Grenville, acting in this case as a private individual (which is important). They are standing, being repaired, there is still a month before the release of the “silver fleet”, there is time.

Suddenly, in the midst of all this grace, a courier pinnace appears with a package from the Duke of Cumberland, whose fleet at that moment was hanging out somewhere off the coast of Portugal.
It turns out that Philip of Spain, completely bored with the constant excursions into his pocket, sent a combined squadron of 53 ships to the south with the order once and for all... And Howard was ordered to leave immediately, because regular negotiations are underway, and he is, after all, a civil servant.

Howard and Grenville begin to prepare to leave - and then this same Spanish squadron breaks into the strait, apparently having decided to check a couple of suitable nooks and crannies before entering Cartagena.
And Grenville signals to Howard - I, they say, unlike you, am a private person, you go, and I’ll stand here for now.
And Howard leaves, and Grenville moves to the exit of the strait and stands there. The Spaniards cannot believe their eyes - a single ship is taking on a squadron. (Moreover, the Revenge, with its displacement of 550 tons, was a large ship only by English standards. The flagship of the Spanish squadron, San Felipe, was, for example, exactly three times larger.)

After 30 hours, the Spaniards were no longer surprised by anything.
The battle lasted approximately this long.
Somewhere in the evening, this same “San Felipe” managed to come in from the windward side and cut off the “Revenge”’s wind. After that, they tried to board the “Revenge” for almost another day. They had already forgotten about Howard - they needed to wash away the stain on their reputation. In the end, when the ship was already hopelessly damaged, two-thirds of the crew knocked out, and Grenville mortally wounded, the crew surrendered.

[they say Grenville did not want to surrender no matter what... When the ammunition ran out, but gunpowder remained, he grabbed people by the collar and ordered them to blow up the ship:
“Sink the ship, Master Gunner, sink it completely!” Break it in half for me! We will find ourselves, friends, in Heaven, but not in the clutches of the Spaniards!”
The team did not agree with this. And even the officers dreamed only of ending this desperate naval seppuku... They surrendered at the first opportunity that presented itself - when the bleeding captain could no longer shoot anyone for disobedience...]

The Spaniards took off the people, put their prize crew on the Revenge and fled to the nearest port, because the squadron - minus six ships, plus a lot of heavy damage - was completely in no condition to pursue anyone.
"Revenge", however, sank before reaching the port due to an injury incompatible with life. Grenville died on the second day for the same reason...
If he had remained alive, things could have turned out differently - the Spanish command had a decent account of him - and so, the Spaniards, shocked by the berserker - as they believed - courage of the British, simply released the team on all four sides.

[Grenville died for several days, hissing and sputtering. His words invariably included different formulations addressed to his people, whom he called “traitors and dogs”]

The Spanish naval command was greatly surprised when their intelligence managed to obtain a report from the English Admiralty on this incident, where Grenville’s actions were qualified as reasonable and competent.
From the point of view of the Admiralty, he made only one mistake - he took the battle in the strait itself, when he should have gone out and locked the Spaniards inside. And the report ended with an absolutely damning recommendation:
“In view of the above, we propose to henceforth consider the ratio of one to three workers, one to five, acceptable”.

***
Interesting facts from myself(more precisely, from the Russian Wiki; Kommersant)

* Raleigh's True Account describes Grenville as a national hero; after which Tennyson sang his praises. In fact, Grenville's entire naval career was stubbornly impulsive.
In 1585, he needed a small ship to board a Spanish ship carrying jewelry. A raft was built from the ship's boxes, but it was very fragile and completely collapsed when Grenville and his crew boarded the Spaniards' ship.

* Grenville had an unbridled temper, and because of this he was hated by all the people he had the opportunity to command. He was proud of the legends of his fury and helped create them himself.
There is a legend that to intimidate the captive Spaniards who were dining at his table, he chewed and then swallowed a glass glass, despite the stream of blood flowing from his mouth.
There is another version of this legend: at lunchtime, Grenville squeezed a glass in his hand and began to bite into it, he gnawed at it until blood appeared on the tablecloth.

* When a goblet made of silver was discovered missing from a boat on Roanoke Island, Grenville responded by completely plundering and burning the Indian village and destroying all their corn crops

* Gilbert's formulas

Martin Frobisher was neither a wayward "sea dog" like Sir Francis Drake, nor a pompous court admiral. This gloomy, uncouth Yorkshireman always said what he thought and knew exactly what he wanted.
...in 1588, while defending England from the Spanish Invincible Armada, he publicly threatened to slap his immediate superior, Sir Drake, if he did not fight as expected, but continued to chase trophies, “like a dog after a bitch in heat.”
As a contemporary wrote, Frobisher “was not only great, but also very a simple person, which evoked in those around him both abuse and love, grumbling and a willingness to work hard, sparing no effort.”.

It was the expected profit, and not just a love of adventure, that forced Martin Frobisher to undertake three trips to the north of Canada in search of access to the riches of China and India.

During the 16th century. Spain and Portugal practically monopolized overseas trade: the Spaniards dominated in America, the Portuguese in Africa and South Asia. It was extremely difficult, almost impossible, for other European countries to break into these markets. The only option seemed to be to find an alternative route to East Asia - the Northeast Passage along the Arctic coast of Russia or the Northwest Passage around what is now Canada. Both rapids were certainly dangerous, but the trade prospects they offered seemed well worth the risk.

Many English merchants, nobles, and even Queen Elizabeth I herself were eager to grab their piece of the “oriental pie,” so he had no difficulty in finding those willing to invest their money in a promising enterprise.

It is unfair to consider Frobisher a fool. Many in his place would have made the same mistake, which cost the queen a lot of money, many sailors their lives, and himself his own good name. Others in his place would have tried to hide their mistakes. But Frobisher did not like to make excuses, which is why he became a laughing stock. And the roads around English Portsmouth turned out to be, figuratively speaking, paved with gold.
...
The homeland remembered him again in 1585, when the war with Spain began. In 1588, with the rank of vice-admiral, he commanded the largest of the English ships fighting the Invincible Armada, the Triumph, which twice single-handedly repelled attacks by four Spanish galleons near Portland. Only after this victory did Elizabeth I forgive Frobisher the financial collapse of three hundred polar expeditions and awarded the stern Yorkshireman a knighthood - however, for military valor, and not for geographical discoveries.
***

P.S.
And if an inquisitive reader nevertheless managed to stick his curious nose in and inquire about the contents of the reference to the original source from Entrecote, then he could notice that not all, not all stories about Elizabethan life there are dedicated to sea hawks. Others are simply news from the fronts, which will be discussed in a separate post.
And others are not connected with the war at all, but with the circle of Raleigh, Sidney, Spencer and Marlow... And the English subtitle - "School of Night"- to the initiates speaks for itself...
It goes without saying that there will certainly be a separate post about THIS PARTY! And maybe not even one.

P.P.S. now the dream is to find the first

Martin Frobisher (1539 1594) English pirate, explorer, privateer. In 1585-1586, as a vice admiral, he participated in Drake's voyage to the West Indies and played an important role in the capture of Santo Domingo and Cartagena. In 1588, he was elevated to knighthood for his participation in the battle with the Spanish Invincible Armada. On July 26, 1588, on board the flagship of the English fleet Ak Royal, Admiral Howard knighted the sailors who distinguished themselves in the battle with the Invincible Armada. On deck, among those receiving the high honor was the commander of the Triumph, the largest ship of the Royal Navy. This man, a brilliant representative of Elizabeth's cohort of sea wolves, turned out to be perhaps the most heroic figure in the battle. After the fleet was divided into four squadrons, he was given command of one of them. And now the previous and current exploits were appreciated. From now on this man became known as Sir Martin Frobisher. Frobisher was a man of a rough, violent disposition, who crushed all obstacles in his path, and was incredibly strong and brave, like a lion. Despite his terrible character, he gained enormous popularity among the English and gained the respect of Elizabeth herself. He was born in 1539 in Yorkshire into a Welsh family that moved to England in the middle of the 15th century. His father, Bernard Frobisher, was one of the most respectable men in the area. Mother came from the family of Sir John York, a famous London merchant. In 1542, his father died and the boy was sent to London to live with his grandfather. Sir John liked his grandson; in one of his letters he noted with satisfaction that little Martin had a strong character, desperately daring courage and a very strong body. Sir John, who invested money in many sea expeditions, decided to make Martin a sailor. From an early age the boy began to go to sea. He made his first large voyages to the shores of Guinea in 1553 and 1554. During the second of them, events occurred that allowed the young man to show his character. One of the native leaders, before starting trade, demanded that the British leave a hostage. Martin went ashore as a volunteer. For nine months the natives held him hostage and threw him into prison. He and a pirate named Strangways tried to capture a Portuguese fortress in Guinea, but the Portuguese captured him. How he managed to get free is unknown, but already in 1559 he was in England and sailed to the Mediterranean Sea to the shores of the Maghreb. In the years 1563-1574, Frobisher was engaged in both piracy and privatization. In company with the Hawkins and Killigrew, he captured many prizes at sea.

When he failed to obtain a letter of marque, he acted at his own peril and risk. In 1563, a certain merchant equipped three ships for privateering, one of them was commanded by Frobisher. In May he brought five captured French ships into Plymouth harbour; in 1564, he captured the ship Catherine in the English Channel, which was carrying tapestries to Spain for King Philip II himself. Upon returning to England, Frobisher was imprisoned, but his imprisonment did not last long. Already in 1565 he was free and on the ship Mary Flower went fishing again. In subsequent years, he robbed legally. Thus, having licenses obtained from the leaders of the French Huguenots, Prince Condé and Cardinal de Chatillon, in 1566 he captured the ships of French Catholics. In 1569, Frobisher received a patent for privatization from Prince William of Orange. During these years, he was arrested several times, and the English government sent the indomitable robber to prison, but the matter never came to trial. The knowledge and experience of the young sailor undoubtedly made his services necessary for the government, and it turned a blind eye to his misdeeds. In August 1569 he was arrested for piracy. He spent almost a year in London prison. He was released thanks to the petition of Lady Elizabeth Clinton, the wife of the admiral of England and the favorite of Queen Elizabeth. In 1570, Martin Frobisher was already in the queen's service. However, this does not stop him from attacking ships for personal gain. Once, sailing to Ireland on behalf of the queen, he captured a German and several French ships. The name Frobisher was also known outside of England. Philip II in 1573 inquired about the possibility of accepting a sailor into Spanish service, but the exact circumstances under which this occurred are unknown. In any case, the adventurer was involved in various conspiracies in England and Ireland in the years 1572-1575 and may have had a hand in their discovery. The third stage of Frobisher's life is significant in that the daring pirate and privateer turned into a pioneer of the conquest of the Arctic and involuntarily became one of the most famous hoaxers of the era. The 17th century lived with the hope of opening a northwest passage to China, Japan and India. Frobisher, familiar with the geographical data of that time, which he received from Portuguese navigators and English scientists, decided to find unknown paths in eastern countries. In 1574, the authorities authorized his expedition. Michael Locke joined her, as did Frobisher, who sought to find this path. Money for the expedition was slow to arrive, partly because Frobisher's pirate exploits had not yet been forgotten.

Finally, in June 1576, he set sail. The two ships Gabriel and Michael and the pinassa left Deptford in July, sailed through the North Sea, rounded the Scottish and Faroe Islands and reached the southern tip of Greenland. Unable to withstand the difficulties of the transition, one of the ships, Michael, returned to Bristol; The pinnace died on the way. Frobisher on Gabriel, with a crew of eighteen people, bravely fought his way until he reached the bay that was later named after him. From here Frobisher's ship turned back and returned to Harwich on 2 October. His return created a sensation in England. The fact is that on the deserted shore of the newly discovered bay, black stones with veins very similar to gold were found. A company was immediately organized with the participation of the queen, important state dignitaries and magnates of the City of London. The goals of the next, second expedition were determined not so much by the search for the northwest passage, but by the development of the open Golden Land, called by the queen Meta Incognita (Unknown Goal), from there they intended to remove as much ore as possible. There were no difficulties with financing. Elizabeth donated £500 and provided a warship. The expedition set sail in May 1577 and returned in September. About 200 tons of an unknown black rock with gold sparkles were brought; They also captured three local Eskimo aborigines, a man, a woman and a child. The fate of the unfortunate "northern natives was sad, and they soon died. And the hype around the ore did not subside for a long time. The famous German scientist Burchard Krenich examined the new rock and gave an optimistic forecast about the possible gold content in it. Everyone vied with each other to invest money in the fabulously rich enterprise The Queen invested 1,350 pounds in the business, and the Earl of Oxford decided to send 2 thousand pounds. next year fifteen ships with miners, masons, gold miners, bring 2 thousand tons of stone, build a fort at the site of the discovery and organize large-scale ore mining. Sailing in May 1578, Frobisher's 15 ships barely survived the difficult voyage and reached Hudson Bay in a pitiful condition, but attempts to develop the area were in vain, and they had to return to England, loading a new batch of gold stones onto the ships. But after repeated research it turned out that there was no gold in the ore. The company suffered a complete collapse; many shareholders went bankrupt. A bitter fate befell the initiator of the voyage and his Arctic odyssey was a fiasco.

The ten-year period of Frobisher's life preceding the fight against the Invincible Armada was marked by several important events. After participating in the suppression of the Irish Rebellion of 1578, Frobisher apparently returned to piracy. In 1582, he was supposed to head to Asia as part of Edward Fenton's expedition, but due to disagreements with the commander, he abandoned the voyage. In 1585-1586, Frobisher, as a vice-admiral, participated in Drake's voyage to the West Indies and played an important role in the capture of Santo Domingo and Cartagena. On the eve of the Battle of the Armada, he commanded the Channel Fleet and cruised the high tide, guarding the English coast against Spanish invasion. After the defeat of the Spanish in 1588, Frobisher continued to play a leading role in the anti-Spanish struggle. Like Hawkins, he believed that the fight against Spain should be concentrated on its golden lines of communication with the West Indies. Frobisher participated in several operations near the Azores to intercept galleons (1589,1590,1592,1593). In 1594, when Spanish troops landed in Brittany and captured Brest, threatening an invasion of England, Frobisher was appointed to command a small squadron sent to help the French Huguenots operating against the Spaniards. In November, during the assault on Fort Crozon in the vicinity of Brest, he was mortally wounded and soon died.

The era of Elizabeth Tudor is a period of fascination with the Arctic. In search of a sea route to Asia, English navigators pinned their hopes on both the Northeast and Northwest Passages. The second option began to seem preferable to them after the publication in 1564 of a map of the mouth of the St. Lawrence River, authored by the Frenchman Jacques Cartier. The Moscow company that financed the expedition chose Martin Frobisher as captain with an eye to his colorful biography. This privateer had already sailed to the shores of West Africa, voluntarily surrendered there to the local leader, and then captured French and Spanish ships.

Frobisher's first voyage to the shores of North America took place in 1576. Off the coast of Greenland, the captain lost one of the ships, but still decided to continue his journey. The crew of the sloop "Gabriel", which returned to London, told their compatriots the sad news, after which Frobisher was recorded as dead in England. The haste was in vain. The privateer reached the Eskimos of Baffin Island and even captured one man as a trophy, which he later brought to London.

Report on Frobisher's third Arctic expedition to German. Image: Wikimedia Commons

Although the Englishman failed to circumnavigate America, he did not return home empty-handed. And it wasn’t the Eskimo (the prisoner quickly died on Albion). The navigator returned with ore, which was rumored to contain gold. Frobisher's sponsors immediately forked out money for the new voyage. Queen Elizabeth gave a thousand pounds. The second time the ships returned with 200 tons of ore! The “black earth” was handed over to the court alchemists, who were never able to extract gold from it. The Queen did not believe in the worthlessness of the ore and called it “an unknown metal.”

On his third voyage, Frobisher, along with miners and colonists, landed briefly in Greenland, then reached Hudson Bay, but eventually turned back again. It was also not possible to establish a colony in the American north - the harsh climate prevented it. But a new portion of ore (1300 tons) was examined with even greater meticulousness. These experiments did not bring any benefit. The ore turned out to be iron pyrite without a hint of gold. The company created for expeditions to the northwest went bankrupt. Many influential nobles and merchants took up arms against the navigator, but he was saved by the queen’s patronage. Elizabeth even elevated him to the nobility.

Sir Martin Frobisher. Image: Wikimedia Commons

An unsuccessful Arctic odyssey discouraged Frobisher from appearing in polar latitudes. In 1585, he became vice-admiral of Francis Drake's flotilla and as a military man proved himself to be much more successful as an explorer and an Argonaut. The privateers plundered the Spanish port of Vigo, visited the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, and finally sacked Santo Doming in Haiti. Frobisher then participated in several more expeditions. In 1588, he was a member of the military council that defeated the Invincible Armada of the Spaniards. The navigator died in 1594 in a battle against the Spaniards near the French Brest in Brittany. A bay off Baffin Island was named after Frobisher.

Sources:
E. N. Avadyaeva L. I. Zdanovich. 100 great sailors
B. Georges. The great hour of the oceans. Polar seas

Announcement image: stephenrbown. net
Lead image: discover-history.com

The unique Martin Frobisher rose is not inferior in its nobility and sophistication to other varieties of garden flowers. Their beauty is undeniable and indisputable for creating lovely flower beds and park alleys.

Park Rose - Martin Frobisher

Roses bred in Canada by Martin Frobisher, almost like their entire family, are quite frost-resistant, and therefore take root well under any climate conditions. These elegant shrubs add fairy hedges to any landscape. They can beautifully weave various figured supports, arches of any shape and arbors of the most various designs for relaxation.

Bushes with roses look delicate depending on the color of the foliage and the flowers themselves.

Each individual flower does not please the eye for long, but new, fresh flowers constantly appear on the rose bush, which together create a beautiful lush bush. Its flowering continues almost all summer and early autumn. Although they are no longer so fluffy and neat, they are still very cute.

In the winter season, the beautiful rose also has something to admire - pink-reddish branches, decorated with golden thorns, look original and bright against the backdrop of sparkling white snow.

The history of the rose Martin Frobisher

This rose (Martin Frobisher) is a rugosa hybrid bred by Dr.Felicitas Svejda in Canada. This is a very old variety, dating back to 1962. Martin Frobisher has been tested in Ottawa and other locations in Canada, as well as in the northern United States of America since 1968. During the test, slight dying off of the shoot tips was observed. In this regard, it was concluded that the bushes require some pruning.

Breeder Felicitas Svejda made a huge contribution to the selection of rose varieties resistant to various climatic conditions. Thanks to her, an impressive number of rose varieties have been created - about 25. Moreover, they are named after famous travelers. In another way, this group of roses is called “Researchers’ Roses.”

Rose Martin Frobisher is the first of this series, which is named after the famous British navigator of the 16th century. dreamed of opening the way to the magnificent, sunny, rich East. However, the harsh Arctic expanses opened up to him - approaches to North America. This flower is a wonderful reflection of Martin Frobisher's discovery. This plant belongs to the plants of these particular zones (2-3).

Description of Canadian Martin Frobisher

Rose Martin Frobisher is distinguished by its surprisingly delicate, delicately fragrant, pale pink flower with a faint purple tint. A large number of wavy petals form a chic flower ball with a diameter of about 6 centimeters. The buds have an average of 40 petals each.

The young shoots themselves are shaded and do not have sharp thorns in the upper part, which is a positive point.

The growth of ornamental bushes reaches a height of almost two meters in adulthood. The leaves are oval-shaped, lush green, dense, with pronounced veins. Thanks to the lush forms of the bush, you can create beautiful, amazingly beautiful flower beds and bright lawns around the house or in the park.

Features of care and cultivation

Martin Frobisher periodically needs to cut off wilted and faded flower heads.

In the spring, when planting a seedling in open ground, it is necessary to deepen it along with the transport lump of earth a few centimeters below and water it abundantly. The plant propagates by green cuttings.

Park rose Martin Frobisher, with all its amazing unpretentiousness, loves to grow in unshaded, light, sunny places. The soil (light soils) must be well loosened and periodically fed with fertilizers. The creation of such favorable conditions will ensure the health of the shrub and its good flowering throughout the warm period of the year.

In addition, the Martin Frobisher rose requires sanitary pruning of dead shoots in the spring. This must be done before the buds begin to swell. You can remove not only dry, but also weak, unsightly grown branches in the middle part of the bush. In this way, rejuvenating or aesthetic pruning of the rose bush is performed.

In addition to beauty, there is another important advantage of this plant. Rose Martin Frobisher Canadian, park does not require insulation for the winter. It is necessary to carry out a simple hilling by sprinkling the base of the bush sufficient quantity earth, and then snow. Such measures will completely help maintain the viability of such a plant, preventing freezing.

Disadvantages and features of the plant

Like all plants, the Martin Frobisher rose also has certain disadvantages.

One of the minor drawbacks of this plant- during prolonged rainy weather, rose flowers do not open.

Also, although the rose is resistant to disease, we must admit that a variety of insects love it. The rose sawfly (Arge rosae) is especially harmful to it. But this can also be dealt with by various means.

These plants may also develop black spot in places with warmer and more humid climates.

There are also features: the Martin Frobisher rose has good resistance to powdery mildew.

This wonderful rose with its delicate and lush blooms will decorate the design of any local area or garden, park or alley.

When he failed to obtain a letter of marque, he acted at his own peril and risk. In 1563, a certain merchant equipped three ships for privateering, one of them was commanded by Frobisher. In May he brought five captured French ships into Plymouth harbour; in 1564, he captured the ship Catherine in the English Channel, which was carrying tapestries to Spain for King Philip II himself. Upon returning to England, Frobisher was imprisoned, but his imprisonment did not last long. Already in 1565 he was free and on the ship Mary Flower went fishing again. In subsequent years, he robbed legally. Thus, having licenses obtained from the leaders of the French Huguenots, Prince Condé and Cardinal de Chatillon, in 1566 he captured the ships of French Catholics. In 1569, Frobisher received a patent for privatization from Prince William of Orange. During these years, he was arrested several times, and the English government sent the indomitable robber to prison, but the matter never came to trial. The knowledge and experience of the young sailor undoubtedly made his services necessary for the government, and it turned a blind eye to his misdeeds. In August 1569 he was arrested for piracy. He spent almost a year in London prison. He was released thanks to the petition of Lady Elizabeth Clinton, the wife of the admiral of England and the favorite of Queen Elizabeth. In 1570, Martin Frobisher was already in the queen's service. However, this does not stop him from attacking ships for personal gain. Once, sailing to Ireland on behalf of the queen, he captured a German and several French ships. The name Frobisher was also known outside of England. Philip II in 1573 inquired about the possibility of accepting a sailor into Spanish service, but the exact circumstances under which this occurred are unknown. In any case, the adventurer was involved in various conspiracies in England and Ireland in the years 1572-1575 and may have had a hand in their discovery. The third stage of Frobisher's life is significant in that the daring pirate and privateer turned into a pioneer of the conquest of the Arctic and involuntarily became one of the most famous hoaxers of the era. The 17th century lived with the hope of opening a northwest passage to China, Japan and India. Frobisher, familiar with the geographical data of that time, which he received from Portuguese navigators and English scientists, decided to find unknown routes to the eastern countries. In 1574, the authorities authorized his expedition. Michael Locke joined her, as did Frobisher, who sought to find this path. Money for the expedition was slow to arrive, partly because Frobisher's pirate exploits had not yet been forgotten.

Finally, in June 1576, he set sail. The two ships Gabriel and Michael and the pinassa left Deptford in July, sailed through the North Sea, rounded the Scottish and Faroe Islands and reached the southern tip of Greenland. Unable to withstand the difficulties of the transition, one of the ships, Michael, returned to Bristol; The pinnace died on the way. Frobisher on Gabriel, with a crew of eighteen people, bravely fought his way until he reached the bay that was later named after him. From here Frobisher's ship turned back and returned to Harwich on 2 October. His return created a sensation in England. The fact is that on the deserted shore of the newly discovered bay, black stones with veins very similar to gold were found. A company was immediately organized with the participation of the queen, important state dignitaries and magnates of the City of London. The goals of the next, second expedition were determined not so much by the search for the northwest passage, but by the development of the open Golden Land, called by the queen Meta Incognita (Unknown Goal), from there they intended to remove as much ore as possible. There were no difficulties with financing. Elizabeth donated £500 and provided a warship. The expedition set sail in May 1577 and returned in September. About 200 tons of an unknown black rock with gold sparkles were brought; They also captured three local Eskimo aborigines, a man, a woman and a child. The fate of the unfortunate "northern natives was sad, and they soon died. And the hype around the ore did not subside for a long time. The famous German scientist Burchard Krenich examined the new rock and gave an optimistic forecast about the possible gold content in it. Everyone vied with each other to invest money in the fabulously rich enterprise The Queen invested 1,350 pounds in the business, and the Earl of Oxford 2 thousand pounds. It was decided to send fifteen ships with miners, masons, and gold miners next year, bring 2 thousand tons of stone, build a fort at the site of the find and organize large-scale ore mining. 1578, Frobisher's 15 ships barely survived the difficult voyage and reached Hudson Bay in pitiful condition, but attempts to develop the area were futile, and they had to return to England, loading a new batch of gold stones onto the ships. But after repeated exploration, it turned out that there was no gold. there is no ore. The company suffered a complete collapse; many shareholders went bankrupt. A bitter fate befell the initiator of the voyage and his Arctic odyssey was a fiasco.

The ten-year period of Frobisher's life preceding the fight against the Invincible Armada was marked by several important events. After participating in the suppression of the Irish Rebellion of 1578, Frobisher apparently returned to piracy. In 1582, he was supposed to head to Asia as part of Edward Fenton's expedition, but due to disagreements with the commander, he abandoned the voyage. In 1585-1586, Frobisher, as vice-admiral, participated in Drake's voyage to the West Indies and played an important role in the capture of Santo Domingo and Cartagena. On the eve of the Battle of the Armada, he commanded the Channel Fleet and cruised the high tide, guarding the English coast against Spanish invasion. After the defeat of the Spanish in 1588, Frobisher continued to play a leading role in the anti-Spanish struggle. Like Hawkins, he believed that the fight against Spain should be concentrated on its golden lines of communication with the West Indies. Frobisher participated in several operations near the Azores to intercept galleons (1589,1590,1592,1593). In 1594, when Spanish troops landed in Brittany and captured Brest, threatening an invasion of England, Frobisher was appointed to command a small squadron sent to help the French Huguenots operating against the Spaniards. In November, during the assault on Fort Crozon in the vicinity of Brest, he was mortally wounded and soon died

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